ESL & INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Does Cognitive Style Affect Communicative Language Tests

2007-01-01T07:35:00.000-08:00

Recent language testing research investigates factors other than language proficiency that may be responsible for systematic variance in language test performance. One such factor is the test takers' cognitive styles. The present study was carried out with the aim of finding the probable effects of Iranian EFL learners' cognitive styles on their performance on communicative tests. For purposes of the present study, it was hypothesized that field (in)dependence would introduce systematic variance into Iranian EFL learners' communicative-test performance. 240 junior and senior students all majoring in English took the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT), the 1990 version of IELTS, and the Communicative Test (CT) designed for the present study. The results of the present study provided evidence that the field-dependent (FD) subjects, compared to their field independent (FI) counterparts, performed much better on the CT. It was, therefore, concluded that test takers' cognitive styles may be viewed as a source of systematic variance in performance on communicative language tests.

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A Functional Approach to Research on Content-based Language Learning

2006-12-24T10:34:00.000-08:00

There is wide agreement among researchers that content-based language learning (CBLL) instruction is most effective when it provides both meaningful communication about content and intentional language development (e.g., Pica, 2000). However, it is less widely recognized that a systemic functional linguistic (SFL) approach offers a distinctive theoretical perspective and characterization of CBLL and addresses issues of advanced language development which are crucial when the second language is a medium of learning. To demonstrate this, we analyze the grammatical scaffolding by teacher and L2 learner(s) of causal explanations which form part of work by a group of L2 students in a project on the human brain. We show how an SFL analysis reveals quite different aspects of the recast sequences of these data than does a 'focus on form' approach. These aspects include: the lexicogrammar of causal meanings, the place of 'grammatical metaphor' in the processes of language development, the nature of causal explanations as knowledge structures of 'ideational meaning' in discourse, and the role of knowledge structures as bridges between language learning and content learning. The potential of the functional perspective to increase the range and power of research on CBLL considerably is thus seen.

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Better English Pronunciation Reflections on Teaching Goals & Scope

2006-12-06T07:22:00.000-08:00

I was asked to take up the new class almost urgently. The short notice did not put me off, though I had not taught similar courses before.

First things first: for every programme, there should be a proper goal, a curriculum and materials. I was given the standard teacher's kit, which was not much help. The objective is, of course, to teach the English sounds and phonemes. The audiotape is too old to play; the white noise of which is such a nuisance that it strains the ear. The CD, of another title, plays all right, but the speaker speaks with a heavy local accent, which is far from satisfactory.

I scanned through teaching aids and materials I have been collecting and using for some time and formed certain ideas. Am I going to teach phonemes, not to speak of phonetics? Is it good enough to go through the English sounds word by word? Language is to be spoken and, needless to say, understood when spoken to.

The institute is attended by adults from a low socio-economic background and, most likely, quite elementary in their English standard as well as general literacy level, too. Hong Kong is an EFL society. Though English is studied from early childhood onward, the learning outcome often does not match the intense effort.

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Field Independent/Dependent Learning Styles and L2 Acquisition

2006-11-15T09:42:00.000-08:00

Imagine you have just arrived in a foreign country whose language you neither speak nor read. You are at the airport and your contact person is not there to meet you. To make matters worse, your luggage is missing. It's 2 A.M. and airport staff are scarce, and those that are present don't speak English. What will you do? Your response to this question will depend largely on the "cognitive styles" you happen to bring to bear, your general predisposition toward processing new information or challenges in a particular way (Skehan: 1991). For instance, if you are "ambiguity tolerant," you will not get easily flustered by your unfortunate circumstances. If you are "reflective," you will exercise patience. If you are "field independent," you will be able to focus on the relevant details and not be distracted by unnecessary details (Brown: 1994).

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Integrating learning technology into classrooms: The importance of teachers’ perceptions

2006-11-03T09:37:00.000-08:00

Chris Cope & Peter Ward

A qualitative study of experienced high school teachers’ perceptions of learning technologies is reported. Underlying the study was a research-based theoretical background that highlighted the importance of appropriate perceptions to successful integration of learning technologies into classrooms. The transcripts of 31 semi-structured, open-ended interviews with a group of teachers were combined to form a pool of decontextualized statements about learning technologies. The pool of statements was analyzed using a phenomenographic research approach. A limited number of qualitatively different perceptions of learning technologies were identified. The perceptions varied with respect to “what” and “how” components. The “what” component concerned perception of what constitutes a technology. The “how” component concerned perception of how the technology impacted on learning. Some of the perceptions were considered inappropriate with regard to the “how” component and unlikely to lead to successful integration. For teachers holding these perceptions professional development is proposed in how learning technologies can be used to encourage enhanced learning outcomes.

Keywords: Learning technologies, Phenomenographic research, Student perceptions, Teacher perceptions

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Adaptive e-Learning Environment Design

2006-10-17T08:34:00.000-07:00

Heloisa Moura

Virtual Learning Environments and Adaptive Learning Systems correspond to distance learning solutions that seek to meet the promise of individualized learning.
Technological innovation, nevertheless, is not sufficient to ensure high learning outcomes. While the number of distance learning packages multiply in the market, it is important to consider their pedagogical use, instead of focusing on listing and describing their features.

Catering for diversity in learners is also not enough for the design of quality solutions that can efficiently support the learning process. It is necessary to acquire knowledge regarding individuals’ different and real learning needs, through a human-centered design process. That is the challenge for designers of e-learning environments and materials.

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Foundations for Personalized Web Learning Environments

2006-10-06T09:35:00.000-07:00

By
Margaret Martinez, Ph.D. & C.Victor Bunderson

The Web offers the perfect technology and environment for personalized learning where learners can be uniquely identified, content can be specifically presented, and progress can be individually monitored, supported, and assessed. Technologically, researchers are making rapid progress towards personalized learning on the Web using object architecture and adaptive technology. However, missing still is a whole-person understanding of how individuals learn online (more than just how they process, build, and store knowledge). Primarily cognitive solutions originally designed for the classroom solutions (and facilitated by instructors) are often not enough to meet the individual, sophisticated needs of Web learners.

Offering an alternative perspective about learning on the Web, this paper describes a research foundation that supports individual differences from a more personal level. It discusses (a) sources for individual learning differences, (b) specific reasons why some learners may be more self-directed or self-motivated than others, and (c) design guidelines that tap into the dominant influence of emotions, intentions, and social aspects on learning. These insights offer simple ways to enhance and evaluate contemporary Web instructional designs so that they support personalized needs and instill the right habits for improved learning and performance.

This paper is aimed at readers seeking new perspectives for understanding individual differences and personalized learning on the Web. The purpose is to suggest that after years of research focused on primarily cognitive models, we have learned that these solutions have often proved unpredictable and unstable, especially for online learning. Reeves [1] advocated stronger, more reliable theoretical foundations when he suggested that "much of the research in the field of computer-based instruction is pseudoscience because it fails to live up to the theoretical, definitional, methodological, and/or analytic demands of the paradigm upon which it is based."

In contrast, conative (desires, intentions) and affective (emotions, feelings) attributes of persons are more stable over different online learning situations. Consequently, many Web learning designers are finding that conventional cognitive solutions are not enough. They are discovering the need to increase their focus on the conative and affective factors that influence learning. In this context, the purpose of this paper is to examine higher-order psychological influences on learning. This perspective leads to an examination of the dominant impact of emotions and intentions on cognitive processing. The paper considers (a) vital relationships between key psychological factors (conative, affective, cognitive, and social) which influence learning differently, (b) critical links between Web learning environments, learning differences and learning ability, and (c) supportive Web learning environments that match individual learning differences.

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A Case Study in Integrating the Best Practices of Face-to-Face Art History and Online Teaching

2006-10-06T07:56:00.000-07:00

By
Kelly Donahue-Wallace & Jacqueline Chanda

Distance learning courses have for the most part made use of simple structures that focus on the juxtaposition of html texts with static visuals. Instruction in art history demands more. It requires a type of interaction described as performative triangulation, which naturally occurs in traditional art history face-to-face lecture courses. The authors contend that this type of performative triangle model, which consists of interaction between the audience, speaker, and image, is possible in an online art history course if animated interactive activities are provided to engage students in linking texts and images. This paper presents data from two studies conducted on interactive animations in an online art appreciation course. The first study compares student learning of identical content in a face-to-face lecture without an interactive component, a face-to-face lecture augmented by an animated interactions, and an html content module also augmented by an animated interactive. The data from this study suggests that learning occurred just as well, if not better, among students provided with the animated interactives as among students offered only the face-to-face lecture. The second study considers student perceptions of the animated interactions and assesses whether students believe that they learn from these tools. This data suggests that students view the animated interactions as assets to the learning experience.

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E-LEARNING IN INDONESIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM

2006-09-30T11:19:00.000-07:00

By Mohammad Ali
Information and communication technology (ICT) that has been developed nowadays is responsible for globalization in which national borders are blurred by instant interaction and information sharing. In the era of globalization what happens in one country will give impacts, positive and/or negative ones, to other countries. People from different parts of the globe, to some degree, share one another various formation, knowledge, science and technology. To some other degree, however, this will create what so called Digital Divide. Digital Divide is a term to describe gaps between the rich and the poor in the effective access and use of ICT (Wagner,2002). All these create competition in every aspect of human life and the competition is perceived as of the main characteristic of globalization. The proper way to win the competition in the era of globalization is by increasing the quality of the people through well-programmed human resource development. Education is believed as one of the important endeavors for improving the quality of human resource for it provides the potential human resource with the competitive competencies that comprise nowledge, skills, and attitudes needed for winning the competition as well as in national development.

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"Distance Education" and "E-Learning": Not the Same Thing

2006-09-30T11:06:00.000-07:00

By Sarah Guri-Rosenblit

This article examines the distinct differences between "distance education" and "e-learning" in higher education settings. Since the emergence of the new information and communication technologies (ICT), many have related to them as the new generation of distance education, and some have referred to their implementation in academia as challenging the very existence of campus-based universities. Many policy makers, scholars and practitioners in higher education use these two terms interchangeably as synonyms. But the fact is that distance education in most higher education systems is not delivered through the new electronic media, and vice versa--e-learning in most universities and colleges all over the world is not used for distance education purposes. "Distance education" and "e-learning" do overlap in some cases, but are by no means identical. The lack of distinction between "e-learning" and "distance education" accounts for much of the misunderstanding of the ICT roles in higher education, and for the wide gap between the rhetoric in the literature describing the future sweeping effects of the ICT on educational environments and their actual implementation. The article examines the erroneous assumptions on which many exaggerated predictions as to the future impact of the ICT were based upon, and it concludes with highlighting the future trends of "distance education" and "e-learning" in academia.

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E-Learning and the Third Age

2006-09-30T10:56:00.000-07:00

By Guglielmo Trentin
As a result of the general improvement in living conditions in industrialised Western countries, people aged over 60 years usually reach the third age in good mental and physical condition. Contemporary society has thus had to endeavour to offer the new old not only social services but also pastimes, leisure, social, cultural and educational activities. Among the range of opportunities being made available is that of acquiring skills in the use of information and communication technology (ICT), an area of ever-increasing prominence. This can be seen not only as an opportunity for individual cultural growth but also the basic condition for conceiving a range of practical network-based services and applications of great social significance for the elderly population. This article refers to one of these initiatives, developed in Liguria (one of the Italian regions with the oldest population), whose purpose was to train about 600 over-60s in the use of ICT. What we will analyse here in particular are the results of e-learning activities offered to a sample of participants and with reference to a segment of the entire training process envisaged by the regional initiative. The specific objectives of the activity were to verify the real possibility of proposing short, online learning modules on the use of Internet for older users; to survey users' attitudesreactions to e-learning; and to analyse the follow-up of distance training activities.

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Media Will Never Influence Learning

2006-09-10T10:17:00.000-07:00

Richard E. Clark

The purpose of this discussion is to explain and sharpen different points of view about the impact of media and attributes of media on learning, motivation and efficiency gains from instruction. This paper is an attempt to summarize my arguments about the research and theory in this area and to respond to Robert Kozma's criticism of my earlier discussion of these issues. I will first briefly summarize my arguments about media effects; next I will attempt to characterize the many reactions to the controversial claim that media do not influence learning or motivation. Finally, I will respond to the specific criticisms advanced by Robert Kozma this issue.

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ESL STUDENTS' COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION PRACTICES: CONTEXT CONFIGURATION

2006-09-05T06:29:00.000-07:00

By
Dong-Shin Shin
University of Massachusetts, Amherst

This paper examines how context is configured in ESL students’ language learning practices through computer-mediated communication (CMC). Specifically, I focus on how a group of ESL students jointly constructed the context of their CMC activities through interactional patterns and norms, and how configured affordances within the CMC environment mediated their learning experiences. After a brief review of relevant studies of CMC in the literature, I discuss ecological perspectives of language learning as a core construct of this study, to explain contextual fluidity in relation to learners’ agency in their learning. Next, I present an ethnographic study of how members of an ESL class constructed a community of social practices through synchronous CMC. The findings indicate that (a) the constructed interactional patterns and norms of the students’ CMC activities represented group dynamics among the participants, (b) the participants’ roles in joint construction of the activities reflected their language socialization experiences, and (c) the activities provided a way for spousal participants to assume academic identities, while becoming a social space for academic gatherings. This study highlights the fluidity of CMC language learning contexts; fluid contexts entail learners’ agency in dialogic engagements with the contextual elements of the learning environment as language socialization processes.

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E-LEARNING AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE

2006-09-05T06:14:00.000-07:00

by
Meei-ling Liaw
National Taichung University

This study presents findings on the efficacy of an online learning environment developed to foster EFL students’ intercultural competence via reading articles on topics of their own culture and communicating their responses with speakers of another culture. The project offered opportunities for EFL students to use their own societal and cultural practices as the focus for EFL learning. In addition, with the help of an e-forum, the learning environment allowed the students to exchange their views with speakers of the target language. Two e-referencing tools were made available in the system while students were reading and writing. The findings showed that all EFL participants were able to communicate fluently in the target language without much help from corpora-based e-referencing tools provided in the system. The use of the online dictionary decreased drastically after the first two readings. The online concordancer, instead of being used for learning different kinds of cultural meaning on the levels of lexical, syntactic, and textual organization as originally intended, was used by the students to link to articles of similar topics for further explorations of culture and language learning opportunities. Despite some technical difficulties with the computers, the collaboration between the two groups of students was successful, as can be seen from the positive and complimentary comments from the participants. The students’ e-forum entries demonstrated four types of intercultural competences: (A) interest in knowing other people’s way of life and introducing one’s own culture to others, (B) ability to change perspective, (C) knowledge about one’s own and others’ culture for intercultural communication, and (D) knowledge about intercultural communication processes.

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Foreign Language Learning via Electronic Mail

2006-09-01T19:36:00.000-07:00

Amy S.C. Leh

The purpose of this research was to examine Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) in foreign language learning. The study investigated (1) the difference of language performance and confidence of the participants who used electronic mail and those who did not, (2) the content and appropriateness of CMC in distance learning, (3) the opinions of students and the instructor towards the use of e-mail in instruction, and (4) the problems the participants encountered in the use of e-mail. The participants were college students in the USA learning Spanish and communicating with college students in Mexico via e-mail for ten weeks. Data collection included scores of cloze tests, written reports, and oral examinations. Data also consisted of e-mail messages, a survey, and interviews. The study revealed that CMC was beneficial for distance learning and that the students and the instructor were in favor of the use of CMC in instruction. A follow-up study was conducted one year after the initial study was completed. The results of the follow-up study supported the findings.

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Computer Assisted Language Learning: Past, Present and Future

2006-08-16T18:20:00.000-07:00

By
Stephen Bax

This article offers a critical examination and reassessment of the history of CALL, and argues for three new categories-Restricted, Open and Integrated CALL. It offers definitions and description of the three approaches and argues that they allow a more detailed analysis of institutions and classrooms than earlier analyses. It is suggested that we are currently using the second approach, Open CALL, but that our aim should be to attain a state of 'norma/isation' in which the technology is invisible and truly integrated. This state is defined and discussed. In the final section the article proposes some ways in which this normalisation can be achieved-using ethnographic assessments and action research, for example-thus setting an agenda for CALL practice in the future.

Keywords: CALL; ICT; Technology; Language teaching; Language learning; Integration

This article seeks answers to three questions: where has Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) been, where is it now and where is it going? It starts' from the premise that if we are to maximize the benefits of CALL in future, we need to establish an agenda and a set of aims towards which to work. This in turn requires an analysis of where CALL has been in the past and where it is now-the future must learn from the past and present. Accordingly, it is structured chronologically, beginning with a reassessment of the history of CALL, followed by a brief assessment of CALL now. It concludes with a detailed discussion of where CALL could go in future and how we as a profession could help it achieve its maximum potential.

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MULTIMEDIA CALL: LESSONS TO BE LEARNED FROM RESEARCH ON INSTRUCTED SLA

2006-08-12T07:09:00.000-07:00

By
Carol A. Chapelle

This paper suggests that some design features and evaluation criteria for multimedia CALL might be developed on the basis of hypotheses about ideal conditions for second language acquisition (SLA). It outlines a relevant theory of SLA and enumerates the hypotheses it implies for ideal conditions such as input saliency, opportunities for interaction, and learner focus on communication. Implications of each hypothesis for multimedia CALL design and evaluation are outlined and exemplified.
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CALL IN THE YEAR 2000: STILL IN SEARCH OF RESEARCH PARADIGMS?

2006-08-12T06:37:00.000-07:00

By
Carol Chapelle

Advancements in the design and use of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) activities require that key questions about CALL be identified and effective research methods be used to answer them. In this paper, I suggest looking to research on other types of second language (L2) classroom learning activities for guidance in framing CALL research questions and in discovering relevant research methods. I begin with examples from the CALL literature demonstrating the diverse perspectives (e.g., cognitive psychology, constructivism, psycholinguistics) which have been suggested as ways of approaching CALL research. I then summarize the research questions and methods of L2 classroom research with emphasis on the "interactionist" approach and discourse analysis. Using three examples --computer-mediated communication, a microworld, and vocabulary in reading-- I will illustrate how similar discourse analysis methods can address essential descriptive and evaluative questions about CALL activities. Finally, I will outline some implications of this perspective for design and investigation of CALL activities.
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COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATION

2006-08-12T06:28:00.000-07:00

By
Robert Blake

The Interaction Hypothesis states that the conditions for SLA are crucially enhanced by having L2 learners negotiate meaning (i.e., resolve their miscommunications) with other speakers, native or otherwise (Long & Robinson, 1998, p. 22). This study demonstrates that incidental negotiations commonly occurred in networked learner/learner discussions as well, especially with respect to their lexical confusions. Fifty intermediate L2 Spanish learners were asked to carry out networked discussions in pairs during their lab time using a synchronous chat program, Remote Technical Assistance (RTA), which records all textual entries. Each dyad carried out a series of online tasks that can be described as jigsaw, information-gap, or decision-making. The results show that jigsaw tasks appear to lead the way in promoting negotiations, as Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993) had previously predicated, but that information-gap tasks were not nearly as productive as a stimulus. The findings suggest that computer mediated communication (CMC) can provide many of the alleged benefits ascribed to the Interaction Hypothesis, but with greatly increased possibilities for access outside of the classroom environment. Nevertheless, the predominance of incidental lexical negotiations, in contrast to the paucity of syntactic negotiations, leaves unanswered or unsatisfactorily addressed the issue of grammatical development. The study demonstrates, however, the value of synchronous chat records as a window for investigating interlanguage.
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Learning Theories, Characteristics, and Weaknesses

2006-08-06T17:18:00.000-07:00

Why study learning theories?

Learning theories are an organized set of principles explaining how individuals acquire, retain and recall knowledge. Theories allow you to put yourself in the learner's shoes and make predictions about learning outcomes. They can be used as guidelines to help us select instructional tools, techniques and strategies that promote learning and enable students to effectively complete course objectives. We will be discussing three learning theories: Behaviorism, Cognitive Information Processing and Constructivism.

Behaviorism

The behaviorism theory views the learner as a blank slate and the instructor must provide the experience. A cue or stimulus from the environment is presented and the learner reacts to the stimulus with some type of response. Consequences that reinforce the desired behavior are arranged to follow the desired behavior. The new behavioral pattern is repeated until it becomes automatic. The behavior of the learner signifies that learning has occurred.

Instructor's Role with behaviorism

The responsibility of learning is on the instructor. It is a instructor centered environment and the instructor sets up and controls the environment of the learner. Learning is created by reinforcing behavior. When using this method state the learning objectives as learner behaviors and arrange the rewards and consequences in ways that reinforce the behavior. Instructional methods used with behaviorism are:

Direct instruction or presentations
rill and practice or repetition
Instructional games

When to use behaviorism

The conditions under which the behaviorism theory most effectively contributes to learning:

When the learner is inexperienced or has little or no prior knowledge of the subject.
Recall of basic facts or automatic responses are required
Task completion requires little to no deviation from standard practice.
Learner will gain mastery through successive reinforcement of desired behavior.
Accuracy and speed are necessary
Instruction will need to be accomplished in a relatively short period of time.

Skills that could be learned with behaviorism

Basic keyboarding or data entry
Basic lab tests or procedures
Changing the oil in an automobile
Spelling or learning multiplication tables
Speaking with a helpful attitude while keying an order.

Weaknesses of Behaviorism

Behaviorism instruction does not prepare the learner for problem solving or creative thinking. Learners do what they are told and do not take the initiative to change or improve things. The learner is only prepared for recall of basic facts, automatic responses or performing tasks with well defined procedures

Cognitive Information Processing or Cognitivism

Cognitive information processing is based on the thought process behind the behavior. The changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indictor to what is going on in the learner's head. The learner's mind is like a mirror and new knowledge and skills will be reflected. Cognitive information processing is used when the learner plays an active role in seeking ways to understand and process information that he or she receives and relate it to what is already known and stored within memory. The learner is viewed as having a more proactive role in his/her own learning with this theory.

Instructor's Role with cognitive information processing

The instructor must provide ways to help the learner process the information. The emphasis is on presenting the information in a clear and logical manner. The learner must organize the information to digest and process it, so chunking and logical sequencing are essential. Instructional methods used with cognitive information processing are:

Discussions and reasoning
Problem solving or trouble shooting
Analogies or imagery
Classifying or chunking information into logical groups
Mnemonics (abbreviations or phrases that help learners remember i.e. for screws -lefty loosy, righty tighty)

When to use cognitive information processing

Conditions under which cognitive information processing effectively contributes to learning:

Learner has experience with subject matter or related area of knowledge.
Resources are available to help the learner link subject matter with existing knowledge.
Learner needs or wants to be guided to a more developed understanding of information.
Instruction time is not severely limited.

Skills that could be learned with cognitive information processing

Troubleshooting basic computer or automotive problems
Classifying the severity of an injury
Identifying hazardous materials and proper storage and transportation
Estimating shipping time on an order.

Weaknesses of cognitive information processing

The learner must have at least a basic knowledge of the subject. The learner needs link to what they all ready know. Learning may be distorted by what the learner all ready knows.

Constructivism

Constructivism is based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, based on individual experiences and internal knowledge structure. Learning is based on how the individual interprets and creates the meaning of his/her experiences. The learner is very active in the process of creating meaning from his/her experiences. Knowledge is constructed by the learner and since everyone has a different set of experiences, learning is unique and different for each learner. Learning may occur though interaction with others. This theory is used to focus on preparing the learner to adjust his mental model to incorporate new experiences and problem solve in ambiguous situations.

Instructor's Role with constructivism

The instructor should design instruction so that the learner has opportunities to solve realistic and meaningful problems. The learner needs to experience real world applications and construct knowledge. The instructor should provide group learning activities to allow learners to interact and solve problems. The instructor helps by guiding and coaching. Instructional methods used with constructivism are

Case studies or problem based learning
Presenting multiple perspectives or guided reflection
Mentoring or apprenticeships
Collaborative learning
Discovery learning
Simulations.

When to use constructivism

Conditions under which constructivism effectively contributes to learning:

Instruction will occur as an interactive process.
Learner will incorporate current knowledge to gain insight and understanding of new situations
Diverse resources to aid discovery are available
There is adequate time for the learner to discover and process the knowledge.
Skills that could be learned with constructivism
Inventing a faster computer processor
Building a bridge over a wide, rapid river
Researching cures for a disease.

Weaknesses of constructivism

Learners need a significant base of knowledge. Outcomes of instruction are not always predictable because learners are constructing their own knowledge. Constructivism does not work when the results always need to be the same i.e. an automobile assembly line.

Learning Styles vs Learning Theories

In Seminar 2 we took learning style inventories to increase our knowledge of how people process information in a learning situation. We are now studying learning theories to help you understand how the learning occurs. You may have also heard about visual, auditory and kinesthetic learners. These terms refer to the learner's preference for the way the data is presented. This means learners may have a preference for whether information comes into them by seeing, hearing or hands-on activities. We are studying these topics to increase your awareness of how people process information and learn. This knowledge will help you to be able to plan a variety of learning activities and design courses that will facilitate student learning. You will also be able to adapt to different groups of students with a variety of needs as necessary.

Summary

The three theories are all equally important. When deciding which strategies to use, it is vital to consider both the level of knowledge of your learners and the thought processing demands. Think about the requirements of the learning tasks or the level of intellectual processing required to perform it and the proficiency level of your learners. A well stocked "tool box" of theoretical knowledge increases the likelihood of finding a theoretical perspective that supports the type of learning being attempted. Some strategies overlap and it may be necessary to incorporate strategies from different theoretical perspectives as needed.

A "spiral" curriculum works well for some courses or degree programs. A course may spiral or cycle through different phases or learning theories in the course. An example of this would be a basic introduction to computers course. At the beginning of the course the instructor would use the behaviorism model and be very directive because the learners have no experience. As the learners get experience, the instructor can move up to cognitive information processing instructional methods such as problem solving and classification to help students develop higher order thinking skills. They may even be able to move up to constructivism and progress to complex problem solving. However, when the instructor introduces the next new concept they will need to move back down to the directive behaviorism model again to teach the new concepts. This spiral may continue thought out the course or degree program.

Learning theories can be thought of as a set of glasses that give us lenses to focus the educational experience. One prescription may not be enough. It may take bifocals to focus and combine theories to create the desired outcome. Each eye sees slightly differently, so some adjustments in plans may be necessary.

Source 1

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CONSTRUCTIVISM MODEL OF LEARNING AND ITS WEAKNESSES

2006-08-02T15:08:00.000-07:00

What is constructivism

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own "rules" and "mental models," which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning is therefore the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences.

Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific study -- about how people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know.

In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then build on them.

Characteristics

Jonassen (1991) notes that many educators and cognitive psychologists have applied constructivism to the development of learning environments. From these applications, he has isolated a number of design principles:

Create real-world environments that employ the context in which learning is relevant;
Focus on realistic approaches to solving real-world problems;
The instructor is a coach and analyzer of the strategies used to solve these problems;
Stress conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representations or perspectives on the content;
Instructional goals and objectives should be negotiated and not imposed;
Evaluation should serve as a self-analysis tool;
Provide tools and environments that help learners interpret the multiple perspectives of the world;
Learning should be internally controlled and mediated by the learner (pp.11-12).

Jonassen (1994) summarizes what he refers to as "the implications of constructivism for instructional design". The following principles illustrate how knowledge construction can be facilitated:

Provide multiple representations of reality;
Represent the natural complexity of the real world;
Focus on knowledge construction, not reproduction;
Present authentic tasks (contextualizing rather than abstracting instruction);
Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined instructional sequences;
Foster reflective practice;
Enable context-and content dependent knowledge construction;
Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation (p.35).

Wilson & Cole (1991) provide a description of cognitive teaching models which "embody" constructivist concepts. From these descriptions, we can isolate some concepts central to constructivist design, teaching and learning:

Embed learning in a rich authentic problem-solving environment;
Provide for authentic versus academic contexts for learning;
Provide for learner control;
Use errors as a mechanism to provide feedback on learners' understanding (pp.59-61).

Paul Ernest (1995) in his description of the many schools of thought of constructivism suggests the following implications of constructivism which derive from both the radical and social perspectives:

Sensitivity toward and attentiveness to the learner's previous constructions;
Diagnostic teaching attempting to remedy learner errors and misconceptions;
Attention to metacognition and strategic self-regulation by learners;
The use of multiple representations of mathematical concepts;
Awareness of the importance of goals for the learner, and the dichotomy between learner and teacher goals;
Awareness of the importance of social contexts, such as the difference between folk or street mathematics and school mathematics (and an attempt to exploit the former for the latter) (p.485).

Honebein (1996) describes seven goals for the design of constructivist learning environments:

Provide experience with the knowledge construction process;
Provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives;
Embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts;
Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process;
Embed learning in social experience;
Encourage the use of multiple modes of representation;
Encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process (p.11).

An important concept for social constructivists is that of scaffolding which is a process of guiding the learner from what is presently known to what is to be known. According to Vygotsky (1978), students' problem solving skills fall into three categories:

Skills which the student cannot perform
Skills which the student may be able to perform
Skills that the student can perform with help.

Scaffolding allows students to perform tasks that would normally be slightly beyond their ability without that assistance and guidance from the teacher. Appropriate teacher support can allow students to function at the cutting edge of their individual development. Scaffolding is therefore an important characteristic of constructivist learning and teaching.

Multiple perspectives, authentic activities, real-world environments these are just some of the themes that are frequently associated with constructivist learning and teaching. There were many similarities between the perspectives of different researchers in this brief review of the literature. The following section presents a synthesis and summary of the characteristics of constructivist learning and teaching as presented by the above review and as suggested by the previous section on constructivist theory. These are not presented in a hierarchical order.

Multiple perspectives and representations of concepts and content are presented and encouraged.
Goals and objectives are derived by the student or in negotiation with the teacher or system.
Teachers serve in the role of guides, monitors, coaches, tutors and facilitators.
Activities, opportunities, tools and environments are provided to encourage metacognition, self-analysis -regulation, -reflection & -awareness.
The student plays a central role in mediating and controlling learning.
Learning situations, environments, skills, content and tasks are relevant, realistic, authentic and represent the natural complexities of the 'real world'.
Primary sources of data are used in order to ensure authenticity and real-world complexity.
Knowledge construction and not reproduction is emphasized.
This construction takes place in individual contexts and through social negotiation, collaboration and experience.
The learner's previous knowledge constructions, beliefs and attitudes are considered in the knowledge construction process.
Problem-solving, higher-order thinking skills and deep understanding are emphasized.
Errors provide the opportunity for insight into students' previous knowledge constructions.
Exploration is a favored approach in order to encourage students to seek knowledge independently and to manage the pursuit of their goals.
Learners are provided with the opportunity for apprenticeship learning in which there is an increasing complexity of tasks, skills and knowledge acquisition.
Knowledge complexity is reflected in an emphasis on conceptual interrelatedness and interdisciplinary learning.
Collaborative and cooperative learning are favored in order to expose the learner to alternative viewpoints.
Scaffolding is facilitated to help students perform just beyond the limits of their ability.
Assessment is authentic and interwoven with teaching.

Some Critical Perspectives

Constructivism has been criticized on various grounds. Some of the charges that critics level against it are:

Constructivism and other "progressive" educational theories have been most successful with children from privileged backgrounds who are fortunate in having outstanding teachers, committed parents, and rich home environments. They argue that disadvantaged children, lacking such resources, benefit more from more explicit instruction.
The collaborative aspects of constructivist classrooms tend to produce a "tyranny of the majority," in which a few students' voices or interpretations dominate the group's conclusions, and dissenting students are forced to conform to the emerging consensus.
There is little hard evidence that constructivist methods work. Constructivists, by rejecting evaluation through testing and other external criteria, have made themselves unaccountable for their students' progress. Critics also say that studies of various kinds of instruction -- in particular Project Follow Through, a long-term government initiative -- have found that students in constructivist classrooms lag behind those in more traditional classrooms in basic skills.
Because constructivism in the classroom depends greatly on student motivation as well as on teacher training, it has been argued that this technique would not be successful in schools lacking resources.
Another deterrent for this teaching method is that, due to the emphasis on group work, the ideas of the more active students will dominate the group’s conclusions.
As emphasis is not based on acquiring and practicing basic skills, students in constructivist classrooms tend to lag behind those in traditional classrooms in these areas.
The teaching technique forces students to “reinvent the wheel.” Proponents argue that students-especially elementary school-aged children-are naturally curious about the world, and giving them the tools to explore it in a guided manner will serve to give them a stronger understanding of it.

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THE ISLAMIC CONCEPT OF KNOWLEDGE

2006-07-23T14:49:00.000-07:00

Dr. Sayyid Wahid Akhtar

While it is an open question whether an explicit and systematically worked out Islamic epistemology exists, it is undeniable that various epistemological issues have been discussed in Muslim philosophy with an orientation different from that of Western epistemology. Today attempts are being made to understand the basic epistemological issues in terms of that orientation. This is a valuable effort that deserves our interest and encouragement. However, it can be fruitful only if the practice of rigorous analysis is kept up, with close attention to the precise definitions of the various concepts involved.

With this view, an attempt is made in this paper to delineate the different shades and connotations of the term 'ilm, i.e., knowledge, in the Islamic context. It is hoped that this brief attempt will serve as a step for future groundwork for the construction of a framework for an Islamic theory of knowledge.

In the Islamic theory of knowledge, the term used for knowledge in Arabic is 'ilm, which, as Rosenthal has justifiably pointed out, has a much wider connotation than its synonyms in English and other Western languages. 'Knowledge' falls short of expressing all the aspects of 'ilm. Knowledge in the Western world means information about something, divine or corporeal, while 'ilm is an all-embracing term covering theory, action and education. Rosenthal, highlighting the importance of this term in Muslim civilization and Islam, says that it gives them a distinctive shape.

In fact there is no concept that has been operative as a determinant of the Muslim civilization in all its aspects to the same extent as 'ilm. This holds good even for the most powerful among the terms of Muslim religious life such as, for instance, tawhid "recognition of the oneness of God," ad-din, "the true religion," and many others that are used constantly and emphatically. None of them equals ilm in depth of meaning and wide incidence of use. There is no branch of Muslim intellectual life, of Muslim religious and political life, and of the daily life of the average Muslim that remains untouched by the all pervasive attitude toward "knowledge" as something of supreme value for Muslim being. 'ilm is Islam, even if the theologians have been hesitant to accept the technical correctness of this equation. The very fact of their passionate discussion of the concept attests to its fundamental importance for Islam.

It may be said that Islam is the path of "knowledge." No other religion or ideology has so much emphasized the importance of 'ilm. In the Qur'an the word 'alim has occurred in 140 places, while al-'ilm in 27. In all, the total number of verses in which 'ilm or its derivatives and associated words are used is 704. The aids of knowledge such as book, pen, ink etc. amount to almost the same number. Qalam occurs in two places, al-kitab in 230 verses, among which al-kitab for al-Qur'an occurs in 81 verses. Other words associated with writing occur in 319 verses. It is important to note that pen and book are essential to the acquisition of knowledge. The Islamic revelation started with the word iqra' ('read!' or 'recite!').

According to the Qur'an, the first teaching class for Adam started soon after his creation and Adam was taught 'all the Names'. Allah is the first teacher and the absolute guide of humanity. This knowledge was not imparted to even the Angels. In Usul al-Kafi there is a tradition narrated by Imam Musa al-Kazim ('a) that 'ilm is of three types: ayatun muhkamah (irrefutable signs of God), faridatun 'adilah (just obligations) and sunnat al-qa'imah (established traditions of the Prophet [s]). This implies that 'ilm, attainment of which is obligatory upon all Muslims covers the sciences of theology, philosophy, law, ethics, politics and the wisdom imparted to the Ummah by the Prophet (S). Al-Ghazali has unjustifiably differentiated between useful and useless types of knowledge. Islam actually does not consider any type of knowledge as harmful to human beings. However, what has been called in the Qur'an as useless or rather harmful knowledge, consists of pseudo sciences or the lores prevalent in the Jahiliyyah.

'Ilm is of three types: information (as opposed to ignorance), natural laws, and knowledge by conjecture. The first and second types of knowledge are considered useful and their acquisition is made obligatory. As for the third type, which refers to what is known through guesswork and conjecture, or is accompanied with doubt, we shall take that into consideration later, since conjecture or doubt are sometimes essential for knowledge as a means, but not as an end.

Beside various Qur'anic verses emphasizing the importance of knowledge, there are hundreds of Prophetic traditions that encourage Muslims to acquire all types of knowledge from any corner of the world. Muslims, during their periods of stagnation and decline, confined themselves to theology as the only obligatory knowledge, an attitude which is generally but wrongly attributed to al-Ghazali's destruction of philosophy and sciences in the Muslim world. Al-Ghazali, of course, passed through a turbulent period of skepticism, but he was really in search of certainty, which he found not in discursive knowledge but in mystic experience. In his favour it must be said that he paved the way for liberating the believer from blind imitation and helping him approach the goal of certain knowledge.

In the Islamic world, gnosis (ma'rifah) is differentiated from knowledge in the sense of acquisition of information through a logical processes. In the non-Islamic world dominated by the Greek tradition, hikmah (wisdom) is considered higher than knowledge. But in Islam 'ilm is not mere knowledge. It is synonymous with gnosis (ma'rifah). Knowledge is considered to be derived from two sources: 'aql and 'ilm huduri (in the sense of unmediated and direct knowledge acquired through mystic experience).

It is important to note that there is much emphasis on the exercise of the intellect in the Qur'an and the traditions, particularly in the matter of ijtihad. In the Sunni world qiyas (the method of analogical deduction as propounded by Imam Abu Hanifah) is accepted as an instrument of ijtihad, but his teacher and spiritual guide, Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq ('a), gave pre-eminence to 'aql in this matter. In the entire Shi'i literature of fiqh and usul al-fiqh, 'aql is much more emphasized, because qiyas is only a form of quasi-logical argument, while 'aql embraces all rational faculties of human beings. Even intuition or mystic experience are regarded as a higher stage of 'aql. In Shi'i literature in particular, and Sunni literature in general, 'aql is considered to be a prerequisite for knowledge. Starting from Usul al-Kafi, all Shi'i compendia of hadith devote their first chapter to the merits of 'aql and the virtues of 'ilm. In Sunni compendia of hadith, including al-Sihah al-sittah and up to al-Ghazali's Ihya, a chapter is devoted to this issue, though it is not given a first priority. This shows that there is a consensus among the Muslims on the importance of 'aql which is denoted by such words as ta'aqqul, tafaqquh and tadabbur in the Qur'an.

Exercise of the intellect ('aql) is of significance in the entire Islamic literature which played an important role in the development of all kinds of knowledge, scientific or otherwise, in the Muslim world. In the twentieth century, the Indian Muslim thinker, Iqbal in his Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, pointed out that ijtihad was a dynamic principle in the body of Islam. He claims that much before Francis Bacon the principles of scientific induction were emphasized by the Qur'an, which highlights the importance of observation and experimentation in arriving at certain conclusions. It may also be pointed out that Muslim fuqaha and mufassirun made use of the method of linguistic analysis in interpreting the Quranic injunctions and the sunnah of the Prophet (S). Al-Ghazalis Tahatut al-falasifah is probably the first philosophical treatise that made use of the linguistic analytical method to clarify certain philosophical issues. I personally feel that he is rather maligned than properly understood by both the orthodox and liberal Muslim interpreters of his philosophy. His method of doubt paved the way for a healthy intellectual activity in the Muslim world, but because of historical and social circumstances, it culminated in the stagnation of philosophical and scientific thinking, which later made him a target of criticism by philosophers.

There was made a distinction between wisdom (hikmah) and knowledge in the pre-Islamic philosophy developed under the influence of Greek thought. In Islam there is no such distinction. Those who made such a distinction led Muslim thought towards un-Islamic thinking. The philosophers such as al-Kindi, al-Farabi and Ibn Sina are considered to be hakims (philosophers) and in this capacity superior to 'ulama', and fuqaha This misconception resulted in al-Ghazali's attack on the philosophers. Islam is a religion that invites its followers to exercise their intellect and make use of their knowledge to attain the ultimate truth (haqq). Muslim thinkers adopted different paths to attain this goal. Those who are called philosophers devoted themselves to logic and scientific method and they were derogated by the Sufis, though some of them, such as Ibn Sina, al-Farabi and al-Ghazali took recourse to the mystic path in their quest of the truth at some stage. As I said earlier, 'ilm may not be translated as mere knowledge; it should be emphasized that it is also gnosis or ma'rifah. One may find elements of mystic experience in the writings of Muslim philosophers. In Kashf al-mahjub of al-Hujwiri a distinction is made between khabar (information) and nazar (analytic thought). This applies not only to Muslim Sufis but also to most of the Muslim philosophers who sought to attain the ultimate knowledge which could embrace all things, corporeal or divine. In the Western philosophical tradition there is a distinction between the knowledge of the Divine Being and knowledge pertaining to the physical world. But in Islam there is no such distinction. Ma'rifah is ultimate knowledge and it springs from the knowledge of the self (Man 'arafa nafsahu fa qad 'arafa Rabbbahu, 'One who realizes one's own self realizes his Lord'). This process also includes the knowledge of the phenomenal world. Therefore, wisdom and knowledge which are regarded as two different things in the non-Muslim world are one and the same in the Islamic perspective.

In the discussion of knowledge, an important question arises as to how one can overcome his doubts regarding certain doctrines about God, the universe, and man. It is generally believed that in Islam, as far as belief is concerned, there is no place for doubting and questioning the existence of God, the prophethood of Hadrat Muhammad (S) and the Divine injunctions, that Islam requires unequivocal submission to its dictates. This general belief is a misconception in the light of Islam's emphasis on 'aql. In the matter of the fundamentals of faith (usu-l al-Din), the believer is obliged to accept tawhid, nubuwwah and ma'd (in the Shi'i faith, 'adl, i.e. Divine Justice, and imamah are also fundamentals of faith) on rational grounds or on the basis of one's existential experience. This ensures that there is room for doubt and skepticism in Islam before reaching certainty in Iman. The sufis have described iman as consisting of three stages: 'ilm al-yaqin (certain knowledge),'ayn al-yaqin (knowledge by sight) and haqq al-yaqin (knowledge by the unity of subject and object). The last stage is attainable by an elect few.

'Ilm is referred to in many Quranic verses as 'light' (nur), and Allah is also described as the ultimate nur. it means that 'ilm in the general sense is synonymous with the 'light' of Allah. This light does not shine for ever for all the believers. If is hidden sometimes by the clouds of doubt arising from the human mind. Doubt is sometimes interpreted in the Quran as darkness, and ignorance also is depicted as darkness in a number of its verses. Allah is depicted as nur, and knowledge is also symbolized as nur. Ignorance is darkness and ma'rifah is light. In the ayat al-kursi Allah says: (Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth ... Allah is the Master of the believers and He guides them out of the darkness into light). Usually darkness is interpreted as unbelief and light as faith in God. There are so many verses in the Quran as well as the traditions of the Prophet (S) that emphasize that light may be attained by those who struggle against darkness.

Among Muslim philosophers, particularly some Mu'tazilites, like Nazzam, al-Jahiz, Aba Hashim al-Jubbai and others, adopted the path of skepticism. Al-Ghazali was the most eminent among Muslim philosophers who, in his spiritual auto-biography, al-Munqidh min al-dalal, elaborated the path of skepticism which he travelled to attain the ultimate truth. There have been some Muslim thinkers, like Abu Hashim al-Jubba'i, al-Baqillanis al-Nazzam and others, who advocated skepticism in order to arrive at certain religious faith. Skepticism is a philosophy that has three different meanings: denial of all knowledge, agnosticism, and a method to approach certainty. Most of the Muslims philosophers sought the goal of certainty. Skepticism in the general sense of the impossibility of knowledge is not compatible with Islamic teachings. It is acceptable only when it leads from uncertainty to certainty. The skeptical method has two aspects, rejection of all absolute knowledge, and acceptance of the path to overcome uncertainty. Muslim philosophers have followed the second path, because there has been an emphasis on rejecting blind faith. Shaykh al-Mufid (an eminent Shi'i faqih) said that there was a very narrow margin between faith and disbelief in so far as the believer imitated certain theologians. In his view, an imitator is on the verse of unbelief (kufr).
In Islam 'ilm is not confined to the acquisition of knowledge only, but also embraces socio-political and moral aspects. Knowledge is not mere information; it requires the believers to act upon their beliefs and commit themselves to the goals which Islam aims at attaining. In brief, I would like to say that the theory of knowledge in the Islamic perspective is not just a theory of epistemology. It combines knowledge, insight, and social action as its ingredients. I would like to cite here a tradition of the Prophet (S) narrated by Amir al-Mu'minin 'Ali ibn Abi Talib: Once Gabriel came to Adam. He brought with him faith, morality (haya') and 'aql (reason) and asked him to choose one of the three. When he chose 'aql, the others were told by Gabriel to return to heaven, They said that they were ordered by Allah to accompany 'aql wherever it remained. This indicates how comprehensive are the notions of intellect and knowledge in Islam, and how deeply related they are to faith and the moral faculty.

The all-round development of various branches of knowledge pertaining to physical and social phenomena, as well as the process of logical argumentation for justification of Islamic doctrine and deduction of Islamic laws (ahkam) with reference to Qur'anic injunctions and the Prophetic tradition, is indebted to Islam's notion of 'ilm. Scientific knowledge, comprising natural and physical sciences, was sought and developed by Muslim scientists and mathematicians vigorously from the beginning of the last decades of the first century of Hijrah. The scientific endeavour found its flowering period with the establishment of the Bayt al-Hikmah in the reign of al-Ma'mun. Undoubtedly the major contributions in philosophy and sciences were made by Iranians, but the myth created by the orientalists that the fundamental sources of Islam, viz. the Qur'an and Sunnah, did not contain scientific and philosophical ideas is totally false. As said earlier, not only the Qur'an and hadith encouraged Muslims or rather made it obligatory for them to pursue truth freely from all possible sources, but also contained certain guiding principles that could provide a secure foundation for the development of religious and secular sciences. Some Prophetic traditions even give priority to learning over performing supererogatory rites of worship. There are several traditions that indicate that a scholar's sleep is more valuable than an ignorant believer's journey for pilgrimage (hajj) and participation in holy war, and that the drops of a scholar's ink are more sacred than the blood of a martyr. Amir al-Mu'minin 'Ali ('a) said that the reward for piety in the other world would be bestowed upon a believer in proportion to the degree of his intellectual development and his knowledge.

Islam never maintained that only theology was useful and the empirical sciences useless or harmful. This concept was made common by semi-literate clerics or by the time servers among them who wanted to keep common Muslims in the darkness of ignorance and blind faith so that they would not be able to oppose unjust rulers and resist clerics attached to the courts of tyrants. This attitude resulted in the condemnation of not only empirical science but also 'ilm al-kalam and metaphysics, which resulted in the decline of Muslims in politics and economy. Even today large segments of Muslim society, both the common man and many clerics suffer from this malady. This unhealthy and anti-knowledge attitude gave birth to some movements which considered elementary books of theology as sufficient for a Muslim, and discouraged the assimilation or dissemination of empirical knowledge as leading to the weakening of faith.

Apart from Shaykh al-Mufid and other Shi'i scholars, a number of classical Sunni fuqaha and 'ulama,' even those considered to be conservative, like Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, regarded emulation or imitation (taqlid) as religiously unauthorized and harmful. Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti held that taqlid was forbidden by both the salaf and the khalaf (early and later generations of scholars). He cited al-Shafi'i's opposition to taqlid. Ibn Hazm followed the same line. These and many other fuqaha' and theologians emphasized the exercise of 'aql and ijtihad as obligatory for the believers. Imam 'Ali ('a) gave a place of pride to reason even in the matters of religion. Abu 'Ala' al-Ma'arri believed that there was no imam except reason. Thus it is obvious that the Shi'ah and Sunnis, not withstanding their differences on several issues, agreed on the role of reason and the necessity of ijtihad. It is unfortunate that some recent movements of Islamic resurgence in the Sunni world, e.g. Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Algeria, Sudan etc., are opposed to reason and preach emulation, distorting the role of ijtihad and disregarding even major Salafi theologians. This attitude, they do not realize, is self-contradictory and self defeating for their own cause. It is a good sign that apart from the rejection of 'aql in recent times by some Sunni quarters, attempts have been made and are still being made to revive the practice of ijtihad and combining social, scientific and secular knowledge with the teaching of theology, fiqh, usul al-fiqh, hadith, 'ilm al-rijal, kalam and tafsir, whose acquisition is essential for ijtihad in the matters pertaining to the faith and its practice.

Another myth propagated by the orientalists, that the Arab mind was not akin to philosophizing and that it was the Aryan mind, i.e. of the Iranians, which introduced philosophy in the Muslim world, is equally unfounded and a conspiracy against the history of Muslim philosophy and its significant contribution to the development of sciences which not only benefited Muslim world but also contributed to the enrichment of human learning, culture and civilization. Ironically, despite the claim that the Aryan mind introduced philosophical and scientific thinking and research, Muslim philosophy is called 'Arab philosophy' by the orientalists, implying a contradiction inherent in their prejudice against the Semites. In Islam-of course, after the Qur'an and the Prophet's hadith-'Ali's sermons and letters, later collected under the title of Nahj al-halaghah, contained the seeds of philosophical and scientific inquiry, and he was an Arab. Similarly, the Mu'tazilah, known as the first rationalists among Muslims, consisted of Arabs. Even the officially recognized first Muslim philosopher, al-Kindi, was an Arab.

After the decline of philosophical and scientific inquiry in the Muslim east, philosophy and sciences flourished in the Muslim west due to endeavours of the thinkers of Arab origin like Ibn Rushd, Ibn Tufayl, Ibn Bajah, and Ibn Khaldun, the father of sociology and philosophy of history. Ibn Khaldun's philosophy of history and society is the flowering of early work by Muslim thinkers in the spheres of ethics and political science such as those of Miskawayh, al-Dawwani, and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi. The credit for giving serious attention to socio-political philosophy goes to al-Farabi, who wrote books on these issues under the titles of Madinat al-fadilah, Ara' ahl al-madinat al-fadilah, al-Millah al-fadilah, Fusul al-madang, Sirah Fadilah, K. al-Siyasah al-madaniyyah, etc.

Muslims never ignored socio-political economic and other problems pertaining to the physical as well as social reality. They contributed richly to human civilization and thought by their bold and free inquiry in various areas of knowledge even at the risk of being condemned as heretics or rather unbelievers. True and firm believers in Islamic creed, like al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Bajah, al-Haytham, Ibn 'Arabi and Mulla Sadra, and in recent times Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Iqbal and al-Mawdudi were not spared fatwas of kufr by the partisans of blind imitation who were hostile to the principle of ijtihad, research and critical thought.

Along with the Muslim astronomers, mathematicians, natural scientists and physicians like Ibn Sina, Zakariyya al-Razi, and others who were instrumental in the development of human knowledge and civilization, it would be unjust not to mention the significant contribution of Ikhwan al-Safa (The Brethren Purity) a group of Shi'i-Ismaili scholars and thinkers who wrote original treatises on various philosophical and scientific subjects, an effort which signifies the first attempt to compile an encyclopedia in the civilized world.

In brief, it may be justifiably claimed that the Islamic theory of knowledge was responsible for blossoming of a culture of free inquiry and rational scientific thinking that also encompassed the spheres of both theory and practice.

FOUNDATION OF LEARNING: Behaviorism-1

2006-07-20T06:18:00.000-07:00

Studying the Mind of Animals
By John B. Watson (1907)

The average person is interested in animals and particularly in what is getting to be called animal psychology. It is one thing, however, to watch the habits of birds and foxes, and quite another to experiment with animals as psychologists experiment in their laboratories. Dr. Watson is one of the most successful of the younger workers in this new and fascinating field. The importance of the conclusions which he states in his brief paper will be apparent to any one who has ever speculated on the intelligence shown by his favorite dog or cat, or who has ever watched trained animals. His paper is further important as an illustration of the difference between genuinely scientific observation and the writing of storybooks. Dr. Watson is now in the midst of other experiments, which are likely to prove not only of interest but of real importance to the psychologist and nerve specialist.

Is it a wild speculation to suppose that we shall ever be able to state just what goes on in the mind of our dog as he bays at the figure of the man in the moon, or growls at the shadow of some cat, which lives in the neighboring yard? Can we ever be sure of what is passing in his mind as he now yelps with delight at the sound of our voice, then leaves as to "smell and make up" with some wandering and friendless cur? The problem is not so difficult as it appears at first sight. Insuperable difficulties confront us if we attempt to get into the mind of the animal and directly see what is going on there. Yet hardly other than those that confront us when we try to figure out the mental state of the man who, after running for six blocks, fails to catch the rear platform of the downtown express. In the ease of the man, however, we feel reasonably sure that we know what he is thinking. True, we can not get into his mind and see for ourselves just what ideas are rising, waxing and waning and rising again we may be too far away to question him or to hear what he is saying; how then do we come by this proximate knowledge of what he is thinking? By noting carefully what he does!

If we think carefully of the may find out what our human companions are thinking, we can not fail to be struck by the fact that our only method for obtaining such information is to be had by observing their conduct. If they act in the way we should act if we were placed in similar circumstances, we unhesitatingly [p. 422] assume that their mental processes are similar to our own. This same method ought to hold good in the study of animals, provided we carry out the method with the same care in the animal world that we employ in the study of men. If it is objected that language, the ability to communicate thought, forever makes the study of man different from that of the animal, we must at once take the position that language after all is nothing but a highly elaborated and complex form of behavior. We should further maintain that if the behavior of any animal were as varied and intricate as that of man, such an animal would necessarily exhibit language in some form or other, which would be entirely comparable in complexity with the language of man.

The possibility of learning more about the mental life of animals becomes a probability when we consider that our knowledge of the mental processes of infants, children and defective individuals is obtained almost entirely without the aid of language. The moment we take this broader point of view, that the behavior of man expresses his psychology, and are willing to admit that we can scientifically study his behavior, it follows at once that we can build up an animal psychology, because we can study the behavior of animals just as scientifically as we can study the behavior of man.

The study of behavior thus becomes a broad science; normal adult human psychology forms only a part of its subject matter. The psychology of infants, of children, of the feeble-minded, of primitive peoples, of animals, all form a part of the world to be observed by the psychologist. The behavior of animals alone is a much broader field than is usually supposed at first glance. Mammals, birds, fishes, even the lowly unicellular organisms, and possibly the sensitive plants, are all embraced in any complete scheme of the study of mind.

With such a vast system of work before him then, the animal psychologist will not be downcast if after years of patient study he fails to find his animal reasoning, imitating, imagining. By his toil he will have established a series of facts, and this will mean far more to him and to his science than that he should gratify his anthropomorphic emotions, as do many so-called naturalists, at the expense of the accuracy of observation.

So impressed have psychologists become of the truth of these facts that we find latterly in many of the larger universities especial facilities provided for the study of animals. Men trained both in biology and in psychology are set aside to untangle the skein of the mental life of these animals. In a few years we can safely predict that one of our familiar adages can be made to read, "What is a psychology laboratory without a menagerie" and the moiety of truth expressed in the new version will not be less than is found in the old. Furthermore, the time is not far distant when experiment stations will be established for the exclusive study of the minds of animals.

Surely the evolution of mind is no less worthy of study than is the evolution of the bodily structure! Considering the enormous number of exact studies on the structure of animals we have already at our command, we firmly believe that from now on, the evolutionary study of behavior will yield far more fruitful results for the guidance of human conduct than will further studies on morphology alone. And in saying this, we do not mean to decry the usefulness of such structural studies in the past nor their possible value in the future.

Let us turn to consider a, little more intimately the way our well-trained student of animal psychology pursues his work. In the first place, he must be prepared to watch his animals day in and day out, not for weeks, but for months. He must spend the greatest care upon them, doing his best to keep them in uniformly good condition. Time and money are spent upon their diet and the utmost precautions are taken to provide them with a warm and cleanly habitation. The higher we ascend in the animal scale, the greater care we must exert to keep our animals happy, and finally, when we reach the higher mammals, the conditions maintained for their care are not unlike those obtaining in any (well-kept) nursery.

The necessity for such care will be appreciated when we consider the fact that the uniformity of the behavior of the animal depends upon his bodily condition. If an animal is stuffed one day and [p. 423] starved the next, his behavior will show it; if he is freezing at one time and suffering with heat at another, his reactions will alter accordingly.

The next most important concern of the investigator is to obtain the tamest animals which can be purchased or bred. This likewise calls for a vast expenditure of time on his part. To beep any animal gentle, it is necessary to handle him every day. Unfortunately, this precaution has not been sufficiently observed even by trained investigators. The reason for this state of affairs is not far to seek. The conditions at the universities where animal psychology is studied are not ideal either for the animal or the student. Not enough space can be obtained and the men who are actually engaged in the work can devote only a small part of their time daily to it. With the coming of better conditions in our laboratories this now more or less neglected factor will receive attention.

The animals which are later to be observed should be taken in hand when they are young. Only in this way can the student of their behavior learn to know the "personal side" of his animal. This need allows itself still more clearly when we consider the numberless chance associations which animals either establish for themselves or with the aid of their attendants. Animals which have once lived in public gardens are quite useless to serve as subjects for scientific studies on behavior.. The otherwise careful English investigator, Hob house, did not fully recognize this fact, and some of his conclusions as regards the presence of the higher mental processes in animals cannot be accepted until the work is done over again upon animals whose prior history is known.

To make this matter clearer, suppose we take a specific example, one chosen front the writer's experience with Rhesus monkeys. It would be a very simple matter for a fourteen months' old child to learn to pull in, by means of a very light toy wooden rake, an object which it could not reach with its hands, and yet, Jimmie, a very tame Rhesus monkey of mine, spent many days in trying to learn this simple act and had not learned to manipulate the rake when our patience ran out. Jimmie was kept moderately hungry at the time of the experiments; he was tethered just out of reach of some very tempting food (malaga grapes). A light toy wooden rake was given him. Instinctively, he grasped it, bit it, then dropped it and began straining at his tether and reaching out as far as possible with his fore-leg, making vain efforts to scratch in his food. The rake was then put around one of the grapes and the handle extended toward Jimmie· Instantly he grasped the handle as before and jerked it, and the grape rolled within reach of his paw. The rake was dropped and forgotten and the faithful paw utilized for the completion of the act.

Now what happens when the grape has been eaten? The rake is still within his reach and the grapes are still outside the pale! Does he perceive the relationship existing between "food out of reach, rake will lengthen paw, ergo, use rake?" Not Jimmie! And he is the brightest of six! As long as you mill kindly hook the blade of the rake around the grape and extend the handle toward him, he will condescend to pull in the rake and consequently the grape, but he has never yet both pushed out and then pulled in the rake of his own initiative. If Jimmie had been purchased from a zoölogical garden and had previously learned such a trick or a similar one, and had we tested him, ignorant of his accomplishment, we might have a far different opinion of his mental make-up from the one we now have. Certainly, no one who has followed the behavior of Jimmie and his five mates for one year would be inclined to accede to Mr. Garner's wonderful statements concerning the presence in monkeys of the "powers" of reasoning imitation, etc.

However, even the legitimate psychologists have not lost hope, as yet, of finding these mental functions in animals. More and more systematic work is being done along this field and the effort is constantly being made to make our tasks more and more like those to which the animal is accustomed on his native heath. It is perfectly natural for all animals to be hungry and to seek for food even when the obtaining of it offers difficulties.

The desire for food is one source of our control over the actions of our animals. Various forms of "problem boxes" containing food, but which require the moving [p. 424] of some simple mechanism before the food can be obtained, represent one kind of task which the animal is forced to perform. A modification of this method, useful with animals which desire each other's company or the freedom from enclosures, is obtained by placing the animal in a narrow enclosure and putting the food or other animals outside. A twofold stimulus is thus presented -- food and the freedom from restraint. Such a method can be worked very well on a number of animals, cats especially. Problem-boxes can be made very complex or very simple and they can be adapted individually to the sensory and motor equipment of the particular animal under observation. Every animal requires a set of problem-boxes particularly adapted to his anatomical structure and instincts.

Hunger is not the only stimulus, which can be used to make the animal form these associations. We said above that the desire (using "desire" in a non-technical sense) for companionship can serve the same purpose as that of hunger. Freedom from a confining space, punishment, words of encouragement and the desire for sexual gratification are other stimuli, which can be used with varying success, depending upon the animal employed. The sexual instinct is exceedingly well marked in the monkey and in the rabbit; the cat becomes frantic when confined, the chick is "despondent" if separated from its mates. Students of animal psychology are not all agreed as to the best incentive to make the animal work. Food, however, is the one, which has been most widely used up to the present time.

Let us complete the picture of the methods used by our student of animal psychology. His animal is hungry; food is near by, in plain view, or at least within smelling distance, but out of the immediate control of the animal. But the animal must do something, turn a latch, pull out a bolt or gnaw a string before he can obtain the food. Our student sits patiently by with pencil, paper and stopwatch in hand. Each tentative trial, every random and foolish movement of the animal is carefully put down in the notebook. The moment the animal reaches the food, the watch is stopped and a record of the time consumed by the animal in this first "trial and success" is made.

Be the time of the first "success" long or short, accomplished with few random and wild movements or with many, the animal is set to work a second and third time upon the same problem. Only three or four trials can be given to the animal each day on account of the possible dulling of the edge of his appetite, and since only the simplest problems can be mastered in so few trials, the animal is put back into his cage until the corresponding time on the following day. This routine is repeated day by day until the animal can solve the problem without making random movements.

Suppose now we have varied in a number of ways the problems which are presented to our animals, and that we have records of the time and the errors of many animals in solving these same problems, what are we forced to think about the nature of their minds? Surely, if any of our animals could immediately perceive the "hitch" in the mechanism of the box and act upon this perception, as an intelligent child would do, the facts would come out in some of the experiments. If one animal could imitate what another animal does, or if he could imitate the actions of his trainer, we should likewise not long remain ignorant of this function in him.

Most of the evidence so far collected, however, points to the fact that if animals possess what in man are called the higher mental functions they keep them pretty well hidden. The majority of animal psychologists now hold that the so-called "trial and error" method of learning is the one typified by the behavior of animals. This method of learning by "happy accident" or chance success, as it is sometimes called, can be illustrated by considering the way the white rat gets into the problem boxes shown in the accompanying photographs. In one of these boxes, the rat has to lift an old-fashioned outside latch. After the trick is learned, he does it in three or four seconds. One seeing only the complete act is wont to express admiration for the rat's cleverness in no uncertain terms. How different would one's view be if forced to watch the whole process of learning!

When the box is first presented to him, he runs over it and around it, biting at [p. 425] the wires, poking his snoot or paws between the meshes; leaving this he scampers around and over the box again; then he sits idly by for a time and makes his "toilet," washing his face and hands and fur. This done, he bounds for the box again. By testing every corner of the box, he inevitably finds the door and the spring which is attached to it. These will move when pushed or pulled while the rest of the box is stationary. After a time, he happens to stick his nose down on the bottom edge of the door, possibly to investigate a new smell or to bite his toe. He raises his head suddenly -- and by reason of the physically inevitable fact that by raising his snout he strikes the underneath edge of the latch with sufficient force to raise it from its socket, the door will fly open. The problem is thus solved! This may take anywhere from two minutes to one hour, depending upon how soon the rat bites his toe underneath
the latch or how soon any number of other equally happy accidents may lead in the same! way to the same result.

But the second time? Does the rat go to the latch and raise it without useless movements? By no means! In individual cases even, a first success may profit the animal nothing. If a large number of time records, however, are averaged, the time of the second opening of the box is found to be shorter than that of the first; the third shorter than that of the second, etc., until the final time comes to represent that actually required to open the box in the most direct way.

The rat learns to open the other problem boxes shown in the photographs in this same hit-and-miss fashion. In Box II, he has first; to bite the string in two before he can knock up the latch (he never unties the string)! In Box III, the animal must walk up an inclined plane until the increasing tension on the string causes the latch holding the door in place to rise from its socket.

These illustrations of the "trial and error" method of learning are chosen from animals which belong to the same genera as man. How do animals lying lower in the scale of development learn? Do they learn at all? These questions at present are somewhat disputed. Loeb holds that all animals which are less developed than the tree-frog show no signs of learning at all. Their movements, according to him, are determined in a purely mechanical fashion. The animals are forced to go hither and thither according to the way light, air vibrations, chemicals or other forms of physical motion brine about changes in the state of tension of the tissues of their bodies; i.e., whether these physical agents directly contract or expand the muscles of the body on the side upon which the stimulus [p. 426] is exerting its force. It may be said at once, that, in this country at least, Loeb stands practically alone in this position. Herbert S. Jennings, who has worked for years upon the behavior of lower organisms, has shown beyond the possibility of a doubt that the reactions of even the amœba, the lowest form of animal life, are variable and adaptable, and that they are by no means mechanical.

But determining the range of animals in which the "trial and error" method of learning can be used is not the sole, nor in the opinion of this writer at least, the chief problem of the animal psychologist. A knowledge of the sensory equipment of the animal -- the accuracy, kinds and delicacy of his sensations -- is indispensable to further progress in this field.

Which of my :animal's senses are his important ones? Are all his senses equally well developed? Do they give him the same information about the outside world as our own give us? Does he see all the colors, for example, as we see them, or does he react only to their brightness? Does he by any chance use senses which man either does not possess at all or else possesses in vestigial form? These questions can all be answered and along with thousands of others must be answered before the fullest knowledge of the origin and the development of the human mind can come.

With even this short and incomplete sketch of what the experimental student of animal mind has to be and to do, is it any wonder that the "literary naturalist" has had to face scathing criticism for his distortion of the facts about animal behavior? Let it be said, however, that there is abundant room for the purely literary treatment of real or fancied incidents in animal life. "Rikki-tikki-tavi" and many other stories might be cited in support of this assertion. The conflict between the scientific and tile literary points of view arises only when the literary man attempts to clothe the airy creatures of his fancy with the somber garments of fact.

In equally striking contrast to our present methods of the study of mind in animals, stand those of the older school of animal psychologists. Read the prefaces to the many books of Romanes, Darwin, Lindsay, Lubbock and others, and see how their "facts" were obtained. Myriads of anecdotes are told of dogs and cats opening latches, of dogs buying penny buns and accepting only the correct change in return for a larger coin, of monkeys making up their own beds. The list is innumerable. These anecdotes were collected by letters, from all parts of the world, taken on trust. But nowhere do you find a complete or even an incomplete statement of the precise way these tricks were learned.

If the material contributed by the present-day student of animal behavior is not so thrillingly interesting as that of the Thompson-Setons, nor so supra-human in its implications as that of his anecdotal friends, he must comfort himself with the thought that in offering it unadorned as he does, he is adding another stone to the ever-growing structure of modern science.

Source: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/Animals/index.htm

TECHNOLOGY PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

2006-07-17T18:38:00.000-07:00

The goal of this writing is to provide assistance to all those responsible for leading and administering school district technology programs. The functions described below form the foundation for administering a school district technology program. It should be remembered that these functions only serve as a guide to those things that must be accomplished by a technology program; and that while helping lead a program towards success, no guidelines could ensure success. In an attempt to keep the list of functions to a manageable size, they have been merged and combined wherever possible. For example, selecting equipment and instructional materials was ignored as a separate function, but it is included in discussions of other functions such as purchasing and budgeting.

Strategic Planning

While most agree with the need for it, the planning function is often given only fleeting attention. It appears that there is some type of subliminal barrier that makes it difficult to begin the planning process. Caught up in the daily grind and the almost continuous need to "put out fires," administrators all too often delay the development of suitable strategic plans. Excuses notwithstanding, the need for effective planning never disappears. A comprehensive strategic plan goes far beyond deciding what to buy and where to place what is purchased. In many instances, such items are included in the more familiar, detail-oriented tactical plan rather than the broader strategic plan. Although a strategic plan will provide guidelines for the acquisition of various forms of technology, a comprehensive one will also encompass a variety of other issues such as human resources development, budgeting, and user support services.

Curriculum Development

Sometimes ignored in the excitement of new and innovative technologies, the intellectual growth of students must be the result of all efforts. To this end, determining what students will learn about and how they will use technology are the goals of the curriculum development function. In the broadest sense, the purpose of all other elements of a technology program is to effectively and efficiently bring to fruition the products of this function. However, the emerging nature of technology and its fiscal requirements are major departures from traditional educational budgeting and curriculum development practices. Thus, creating a technology curriculum guide or framework that balances the dreams and aspirations of curriculum developers with fiscal realities is fraught with obstacles.

Budgeting

Making certain that sufficient funds are available for the technology program to meet its annual goals and objectives is the purpose of the budgeting function. Being viewed by those responsible for making budget decisions as one who develops thoughtful and realistic budget requests is essential to fulfilling this function. Developing and maintaining this credibility is not an easy task and requires that the budget be developed carefully and presented in an organized manner so that it is clearly understood by those reviewing the budget documents.

Purchasing

Equipment, software, materials, and maintenance services must also be purchased. While schools have always been involved with the purchasing function, the unfamiliar and often unique characteristics of modern technology pose a new set of problems. For example, purchasing agents and administrators who may have only limited knowledge and a generally uncomfortable feeling about technology often make poor purchasing decisions. Similarly, the speed at which modern technology changes makes it difficult for even the most technologically astute professionals to know when and what to purchase. While knowledge of products is a necessary component-for effective purchasing, this is not sufficient. Product-based knowledge must be balanced by the practical, and sometimes formal, elements of purchasing. Those responsible for the purchasing function must also be able to work closely with vendors without being intimidated by them, and must be able to write specifications that meet the program's needs rather than those of potential vendors.

Maintaining Equipment

Probably no single function impacts a wider range of district technology users than the maintenance function. Anyone who uses technology, that is, virtually every student and staff member, has their routine disrupted when their equipment malfunctions. To the extent that it is repaired quickly and without much fuss, they are pleased; when repairs seem to take too long, anger and frustration are the result. Nothing can do more harm to a technology program than the belief that there are numerous pieces of equipment sitting in corners and closets gathering dust while waiting to be repaired.

Staff Development

The importance of the training or staff development function has been reaffirmed in countless surveys over the last several years. Year after year, when asked about keys to successful technology programs, teachers and administrators invariably place staff development and training high on their list. It is nonetheless surprising that in spite of its apparent importance, the training function continually falls short of its goals and expectations. Attracting participants to training and providing them with quality instruction is a difficult and complex process. The caliber and reputation of the trainers and the training unit, the perceived rewards, both tangible and intangible, district policies, and the support of school and district administration are just some of the many factors to be considered in the development of a comprehensive training program.

User Support

The user support function differs from the maintenance and training functions in that it focuses on providing users with a source of information and assistance, often at the moment of need. Who among us has not wished we could contact someone for assistance after running into a roadblock while working in unfamiliar terrain? On the other hand, teachers and administrators often need a source of information about software, hardware, or instructional materials. This need is also present during calmer, less stressful moments. Teachers, for example, frequently require a source of information about technology-based products and methods. This information includes such things as determining which software is most appropriate for a given lesson, how to secure a copy of materials for preview, and how to best use something to help meet a particular objective. ·Regardless of the specific issue, the ability to respond to individual user needs is a necessary element in a modem technology program

Source:

Brody, Philip J (1995). Technology planning and management handbook. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, Inc.

Fundamental Components of the Systematic Design of Instruction: Dick & Carey Model

2006-07-13T19:11:00.000-07:00

Identify Instructional Goal

The first step in the model is to determine what it is that you want learners to be able to do when they have completed your instruction. The instructional goal may be derived from a list of goals, from a performance analysis, from a needs assessment, from practical experience with learning difficulties of students, from the analysis of people who are doing a job, or from some other requirement for new instruction.

Conduct Instructional Analysis

After you have identified the instructional goal, you will determine step-by-step what people are doing when they perform that goal. The final step in the instructional analysis process is to determine what skills, knowledge, and attitudes, known as entry behaviors, are required of learners to be able to begin the instruction. A diagram will be produced that depicts the relationships among all of the skills that have been identified.

Analyze Learners and Contexts

In addition to analyzing the instructional goal, there is a parallel analysis of the learners, the context in which they will learn the skills, and the context in which they will use them. Learners' current skills, preferences, and attitudes are determined along with the characteristics of the instructional setting and the setting in which the skills will eventually be used. This crucial information shapes a number of the succeeding steps in the model, especially the instructional strategy.

Write Performance Objectives

Based on the instructional analysis and the statement of entry behaviors, you will write specific statements of what the learners will be able to do when they complete the instruction. These statements, which are derived from the skills identified in the instructional analysis, will identify the skills to be learned, the conditions under which the skills must be performed, and the criteria for successful performance.

Develop Assessment Instruments

Based on the objectives you have written, you will develop assessments that are parallel to and measure the learners' ability to perform what you described in the objectives. Major emphasis is placed on relating the kind of skills described in the objectives to what the assessment requires.

Develop Instructional Strategy

Based on information from the five preceding steps, you will identify the strategy that you will use in your instruction to achieve the terminal objective. The strategy will emphasize components to foster student learning including pre instructional activities, presentation of content, learner participation, assessment, and follow-through activities. The strategy will be based on current theories of learning and results of learning research, the characteristics of the media that will be used to deliver the instruction, content to be taught, and the characteristics of the learners who will participate in the instruction. These features are used to develop or select materials and plan for interactive classroom instruction, mediated instruction, distance learning using a technology such as the world wide web, or other means of packaging and delivering instruction.

Develop and Select Instructional Material

In this step you will use your instructional strategy to produce the instruction. This typically includes guidance for learners, instructional materials, and assessments. (When we use the term instructional materials we are including all forms of instruction such as instructor's guides, student modules, overhead transparencies, videotapes, computer-based multimedia formats, and web pages for distance learning. We intend the term materials to have this broad connotation.) The decision to develop original materials will depend on the types of learning outcomes, the availability of existing relevant materials, and developmental resources available to you. Criteria for selecting from among existing materials are provided.

Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction

Following the completion of a draft of the instruction, a series of evaluations is conducted to collect data that are used to identify how to improve the instruction. The three types of formative evaluation are referred to as one-to-one evaluation, small-group evaluation, and field-trial evaluation. Each type of evaluation provides the designer with a different type of information that can be used to improve the instruction. Similar techniques can be applied to the formative evaluation of existing materials or classroom instruction.

Revise Instruction

The final step in the design and development process (and the first step in a repeat cycle) is revising the instruction. Data from the formative evaluation are summarized and interpreted to identify difficulties experienced by learners in achieving the objectives and to relate these difficulties to specific deficiencies in the instruction. The line in the figure at the beginning of this chapter labeled "Revise Instruction" indicates that the data from a formative evaluation are not simply used to revise the instruction itself, but are used to reexamine the validity of the instructional analysis and the assumptions about the entry behaviors and characteristics of learners. It may be necessary to reexamine statements of performance objectives and test items in light of collected data. The instructional strategy is reviewed and finally all of these considerations are incorporated into revisions of the instruction to make it a more effective instructional tool.

Source: Dick & Carey (2006)

Promoting Language acquisition: Technology and English Language Learners

2006-07-07T16:14:00.000-07:00

by Jan Lacina

As a former English as a second language (ESL) teacher, I know firsthand how important it is for teachers to find technology that promotes language development for English language learners. While teaching ESL in an inner-city school in the Dallas area during the early 1990s, I taught students from such countries as Korea, Japan, Mexico, Bosnia, Vietnam, and Honduras. With such cultural and language diversity in my elementary classroom, I needed software that met the students' diverse needs, and training on how to use such technology. Although I was a recently certified ESL teacher, I had no training on how to use technology to enhance learning. As a result, technology and computers were scary things for me. Not only was finding software that was appropriate for my ESL students a problem, I did not know how to use what I found to improve and enhance language instruction.

Today, a plethora of Web sites and software packages are designed specifically for English language learners, and not only are most teacher candidates well-versed in how to use technology, they are likely familiar with numerous software programs that are appropriate to use with children. Although teacher candidates may be well-trained in how to use technology, they are often unfamiliar with software and techniques for working with English language learners who may be enrolled in their regular education classroom. With the population of English language learners increasing, teachers who may not necessarily be trained in ESL may have ESL students in their classroom; for that reason, it is imperative that all teachers be familiar with strategies for working with English language learners. For that reason, I interviewed an ESL Coordinator and a 1st-grade ESL/bilingual teacher to gain their perspectives on computer software that is used in the classroom to meet the needs of English language learners.

History of Computer-Assisted Instruction

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, a behaviorist model for computer-assisted instruction (CAI) existed in which language instruction was introduced in the form of drill and practice (Butler-Pascoe & Wiburg, 2003; Stevens, 1989). Over the years, research shows that such isolated drill and practice is not an effective way to improve students' academic achievement (Butler-Pascoe & Wiburg, 2003; Hativa, 1988; Wenglinsky, 1998). During the 1980s and 1990s, the focus was on the cognitive and language proficiency needs of ESL students, in which content-based teaching became a widely accepted means of teaching English (Butler-Pascoe & Wiburg, 2003; Nunan, 1999; Snow & Brinton, 1988). Today's instruction emphasizes students constructing meaning with computers, reminding us of the work of Vygotsky and Piaget. The field of CAI continues to change as new technologies are developed, and as research continues to demonstrate which teaching methods are most effective at promoting language acquisition.

Using Technology With English Language Learners

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) enables English language learners (ELL) to construct meaning in a digital environment. McLoughlin and Oliver (1998) explain that the computer is one way to support Vygotsky's (1978) communicative theory of learning and, if used appropriately, teachers can provide an environment in which learning is authentic and activities are interesting to students (Healey & Klinghammer, 2002). Thus, students are able to construct their own knowledge, as teachers scaffold students' learning.

As with teaching mainstream students, no one technology is better suited for using with ESL students than others. It is most important, however, to choose technology that increases student interactivity. The Web offers many opportunities for such instruction, from Web-based pen pals to discussion boards.

Internet Chat Sessions

Internet chat sessions provide students with an authentic means of communication. Students can meet with their peers to discuss assignments, content conference over a writing assignment, or chat online about a book they are reading. Most important for ESL students, active participation is encouraged. For shy or introverted students, a chat session may be a place where their voice is heard, and ESL students will not have to worry about mispronunciation. One important benefit of a chat session for ESL students is that the text is always in front of them, since the chat transcripts remain on the computer screen during chat sessions. When speaking with someone in a second language, a missed word or phrase may make the whole incomprehensible. With a chat, student engagement is maintained since students can read the conversation more than once as they decide how to respond to their peers (Freiermuth, 2002). Internet chat sessions can be used in almost any subject area; for today's technologically fluent child, chat sessions offer an engaging, authentic learning environment.

Discussion Boards

Discussion boards encourage students to collaborate with others and participate in experiential learning experiences. Bikowski and Kessler (2002) describe how a discussion board can be used to promote constructivist language tasks. They suggest some of the following discussion board activities:
* Provide a model containing student errors and discuss possible solutions
* Elicit feedback on self-reflections and analysis
* Establish a peer review system by posting compositions with subgroups and whole-class discussion boards
* Post a rubric and discuss its intentions and value. (p. 29)

Discussion boards provide an inexpensive, authentic model of communication in the classroom. They allow the learner to participate in a collaborative environment. Many free discussion board services are available on the Internet. Although these boards essentially provide the same service, it is best for teachers to experiment with a number of boards and find the best one for him/her (Bikowski & Kessler, 2002). Some of the discussion boards I have used and liked are the following:
www.eslcafe.com/forums/student/ Both student and teacher discussion forums are located on this Web site. You can restrict membership when requesting to begin a board.
http://amazingforum.com This site offers free discussion boards and free Web page/homepage services. www.quicktopic.com This site offers free discussion boards for one-topic discussions.
www.webct.com For the past four years, I have taught distance education courses using webct. The beauty of webct, in comparison to other discussion boards, is that webct offers a courseware system, such as student web presentation features, E-mail / chat features, and content module features.

Web Quests

Web Quests are authentic Web-based environments that support inquiry learning. According to Butler-Pascoe and Wiburg (2003), Web Quests contain:
* An introduction or scenario
* A task that is meaningful or doable
* A process for completing the task, often in groups
* Information resources to support the task
* Guidance on how to organize the information acquired
* A conclusion that brings closure and reflection. (pp. 172-173)

As you can see, Web Quests are highly structured and group oriented. A Web Quest can be a long-term project, or it can last one to two class periods. Web Quests are beneficial to English language learners because they provide a cooperative learning environment in which communication and problem solving are emphasized. To view an excellent informational site on Web Quests, go to http://webquest.sdsu.edu/ webquest.html, and to read more information on training and materials to use to develop Web Questions, go to http://webquest.sdsu.edu/ materials.htm.

ESL Educator Interview: Software Teachers Use

For this column, I interviewed two educators in the field of ESL/bilingual education. Tara Newman is the ESL Coordinator and a 5ththrough 12-grade teacher for Hudson Independent School District. Hudson is located north of Houston, in rural east Texas. Like many rural areas in Texas, Hudson is experiencing an influx of ESL students. Tara is a veteran teacher, having taught at various grade levels from kindergarten up to high school. She frequently presents techniques for effectively working with ESL students, and she is a doctoral student in educational leadership at Stephen F. Austin State University, in Nacogdoches, Texas. Itza Flores is a 1st-grade teacher at Slack Elementary in Lufkin, Texas. Slack Elementary is well-known in east Texas for its exemplary dual language program.

I conducted online interviews to learn about current technological practices in the public schools and software that teachers actually use in the classroom.
Jan: What do you consider the benefits of using technology with English language learners?
Tara: The use of computers and video games has proven to be a non-threatening way to provide instant feedback for my students.

Other helpful technology that I use are videos, individual tape recorders, overheads, and music (CD/cassette players).

Itza: Technology compensates for the many differences in background that many ELL students bring to the classroom and helps develop an engaged learning environment that encourages student and class unification. Students are stimulated to invest in learning by the use of technology. Technology excites students in ways that normal textbooks cannot. It also gives ELL learners the ability to control their own level of learning by controlling their time and choice of topics they feel they need extra help in. Technology meets their specific needs.
Jan: How have you used technology with English language learners?
Itza: As a 1st-grade teacher, I've used technology as a way to help my ELL students enhance their learning by providing different pathways in which they will be able to learn. I sometimes use technology as a visual to an assignment that we are learning. I've also been able to use it as a reinforcement tool for material that I have taught. In my classroom, technology has provided my students with opportunities to enhance just regular learning into higher levels of cognitive development. I've used software like Reader Rabbit to reinforce phonics and reading skills, Kidspiration, Accelerated Reader, Kidworks, Kid Pix, and Storybook Weaver and Success Maker. With this software, I have been able to give the student the ability to control and self-direct to his or her own learning while receiving immediate feedback, something that all students need.

Tara: One new program that I am using this year is called Soliloquy Reading Assistant. In this program, the students can choose to be read to or to read orally themselves into a microphone/ headphone combination. This feature of reading back into the microphone is very helpful, because it provides instant feedback on mispronunciations, and the students generally enjoy the program. Another new form of technology that I am using is a series of language games on a Playstation. The students love this because most of them are familiar with Playstations from outside of school. I have not found a way to keep track of the students" progress yet, and so it seems like a type of independent practice without feedback. Another program I use that my students enjoy is Rosetta Stone. This program allows me to select particular objectives for individual students as well as keep tabs on their progress electronically. One thing that I do is divide my students during the period that I have them. For example, I have an area where I have PCs (with Rosetta Stone, for example), and another area where the Playstations are set up, and a third area where I am working with a small group on a particular skill. This allows for each group to be engaged in a meaningful, purposeful educational activity, and [it] also allows me to provide that small group [with] individualized attention to each student.
Tara and Itza work in school districts that provide computer software and training to promote constructivist learning. Such resources And training; are needed in all schools, especially those that serve English language learners

In order for teacher's to adequately meet the needs of ELLs, all teachers must be familiar with techniques and resources to facilitate language learning by using technology. A first step to achieving such a goal would be for all teacher educator preparation programs to require a course, or courses, in ESL methodology. This is no longer just a desire of those of us whose academic discipline is in the area of TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages), but such an idea is now a necessity if we truly want to meet the academic needs of all of our students.

References

Beers, K. (2003). Equality in the digital divide. Voices from the Middle, 11(3), 4-5.
Bikowski, D., & Kessler, G. (2002). Making the most of discussion boards in the ESL classroom. TESOL Journal, 11(3), 21-30.
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Jan Lacina is Assistant Professor and PBIC Coordinator for a Web-based program in the Department of Elementary Education at Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, Texas.

Competence-Based Curriculum: Between Expectation and Reality (KBK: Antara Harapan dan Kenyataan

2006-07-06T05:39:00.000-07:00

Oleh Muhammad Yaumi

Abstract

This writing highlights a high desired status (expectation) of curriculum-based competence, a 2004 Indonesian curriculum as the newest curriculum, and a low actual status that is likely to happen if the implementation of the curriculum keeps the same model of previous four curricula changes in the country. The writer brings forward four alternative solutions to minimize the gap between expectation and reality. The solutions include (1)the domination of Western instructional model should be adapted, not adopted, based on the Indonesian culture and learning styles, (2) educational stakeholders should have active involvement and power sharing to support instructional practice, (3) the amount of subject matters should be rethought, and (4) teachers’ recruitment should be systematically and continuously empowered.

A. Pendahuluan

Dalam sejarah penyelenggaraan pendidikan di negara kita, tercatat sebanyak lima kali perubahan kurikulum pendidikan dasar dan menengah yang berbarengan dengan perubahan strategi belajar mengajar. Kurikulum pertama dirancang pada tahun 1968 yang menekankan pada pentingnya pembinaan moral, budi pekerti, agama, kecerdasan dan keterampilan, serta fisik yang kuat dan sehat (Sularto, 2005). Kurikulum 1968 dianggap belum sempurna sekalipun penyusunannya berdasarkan hasil kajian mendalam terhadap pancasila dan Undang-undang Dasar 1945. Oleh karena itu, pemerintah, para ahli, dan praktisi pendidikan melakukan inovasi dan uji coba terhadap model desain pembelajaran yang pada akhirnya terakumulasi dalam perwujudan kurikulum 1975. Kurikulum 1975 pun dipandang belum mampu mengakomodasi upaya menciptakan manusia Indonesia seutuhnya yang berindikasi pada pengembangan tiga aspek kognisi, afektif, dan psikomotor, maka dirancanglah kurikulum 1984 sebagai penyempurnaan kurikulum sebelumnya yang menekankan pada Cara Belajar Siswa Aktif (CBSA).

Seiring dengan perubahan situasi politik, tarik-menarik kepentingan pun sering terjadi sehingga mempengaruhi sistem pendidikan yang diselenggarakan di negeri ini. Setelah berjalan selama lebih kurang sepuluh tahun, implementasi kurikulum tahun 1984 terasa terlalu membebani guru dan murid mengingat jumlah materi yang terlalu banyak jika dibandingkan dengan waktu yang tersedia. Dengan demikian, perubahan kurikulum terus berubah dengan lahirnya kurikulum 1994 sebagai penyederhanaan kurikulum 1984. Mutu pendidikan yang semakin terpuruk hingga berada pada level ke-12 dari 12 negara di Asia seolah mengindikasikan hanya dengan perubahan kurikulumlah sehingga keterpurukan itu dapat didongkrat ke arah yang lebih baik, maka lahirlah kurikulum 2004 yang dikenal dengan “kurikulum berbasis kompetensi”.

Perubahan kurikulum 1968 hingga sampai pada kurikulum 2004 menunjukkan kuatnya anggapan bahwa kegagalan penyelenggaraan pendidikan di Indonesia hanyalah disebabkan oleh kesalahan rancangan kurikulum. Menurut hemat penulis anggapan seperti itu telah mengabaikan faktor lain yang juga ikut mempengaruhi terjadinya kegagalan itu sendiri. Beberapa faktor yang dimaksud adalah kompetensi guru dalam melaksanakan kurikulum, ketidaktersediaan sarana dan prasarana sekolah, kurangnya keterlibatan stakeholder, tidak terciptanya kerjasama yang baik antara perguruan tinggi sebagai pencetak tenaga guru, pemerintah, dan sekolah, sistem evaluasi dan standarisasi nasional dan daerah yang tidak akurat, dan ketidakjelasan arah serta model pendidikan yang diselenggarakan. Dalam artikel sederhana ini penulis tidak bermaksud mengupas berbagai faktor yang disebutkan di atas, melainkan hanya berkisar pada tingginya harapan terhadap kurikulum dan model pembelajaran di satu sisi dan rendahnya kenyataan hasil pendidikan yang kita peroleh di sisi lain dan kemungkinan solusi yang ditawarkan guna mengatasi lebarnya gap antara desired status (status yang ingin dicapai) dan actual status (status yang sebenarnya).

B. Prinsip-prinsip KBK

Dalam Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum 2004 “Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi” (KBK) yang dikeluarkan oleh Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (2003) dijelaskan bahwa prinsip-prinsip implementasi meliputi (1) kegiatan belajar mengajar, (2) penilaian berbasis kelas, dan (3) pengelolaan kurikulum berbasis sekolah.

1. Kegiatan Belajar Mengajar (KBM)

Ada dua hal yang perlu ditegaskan sebagai prinsip dasar KBM. Pertama, mengembangkan semua potensi yang dimiliki peserta didik sehingga menghasilkan sumber daya manusia yang memiliki kemampuan untuk berpikir logis, kritis, dan kreatif. Kedua, kegiatan belajar mengajar yang berorintasi pada pemberdayaan peserta didik seperti mengembangkan kreativitas, menciptakan lingkungan yang menyenangkan dan menantang, mengembangkan beragam kemampuan yang bermuatan nilai, menciptakan pengalaman belajar yang beragam dan belajar melalui berbuat (DEPDIKNAS, 2003).

Istilah mengembangkan dan memperdayakan merujuk kepada adanya pengetahuan dasar yang dibawa oleh masing-masing peserta didik untuk dikembangkan dalam lingkungan kelas. Dalam pengertian lain, tidak ada seorang anak pun yang datang ke sekolah tanpa membawa pengetahuan yang terkait dengan mata pelajaran yang hendak dipelajari. Dengan demikian, proses belajar bukan hanya berlangsung dalam lingkungan sekolah saja melainkan akan berlanjut sampai dalam rumah tangga dan masyarakat.

Sebagai seorang pendidik yang hidup di negara yang sedang berkembang yang sarana belajarnya serba terbatas, penulis merasa kawatir jika beban yang dimuat dalam kurikulum berbasis kompetensi terasa jauh lebih berat dibandingkan kurikulum 1994. Dapat dibayangkan bahwa jumlah mata pelajaran dalam setiap hari yang berkisar antara tujuh sampai delapan mata pelajaran akan sangat tidak mungkin dapat dipenuhi oleh peserta didik jika setiap mata pelajaran memiliki tugas dan pekerjaan rumah sebagai mana yang tercantum dalam kurikulum. Di sisi lain terbatasnya peralatan belajar seperti komputer dan Internet akan memaksa orang tua untuk mengeluarkan dana tambahan demi untuk menyewa peralatan tersebut.

Berbeda dengan Indonesia, negera-negara maju seperti Amerika Serikat misalnya hampir tidak memiliki kendala yang berarti dalam mengimplementasikan model pembelajaran konstruktivisme (agak mirip dengan KBK di Indonesia) karena ditunjang oleh sarana teknologi yang sangat memadai. Setiap peserta didik memiliki peralatan komputer dan fasilitas Internet yang serba gratis di rumah. Jumlah mata pelajaran setiap hari yang hanya berkisar antara tiga sampai empat mata pelajaran dengan alokasi waktu yang cukup panjang (jam 8.30 sampai dengan jam 4 sore) serta jumlah peserta didik yang hanya 15-20 yang ditangani oleh 1 orang guru inti dan 2-3 orang guru bantu ditambah dengan sarana komputer lengkap dengan fasilitas Internetnya di setiap kelas menyebabkan efektifitas dan efisiensi kerja guru terasa lebih nyaman. Apa lagi air conditioning, AC, yang dilengkapi di setiap sudut-sudut ruangan kelas.

Jika rancangan KBM yang diadopsi dari model pembelajaran konstruktivisme seperti yang dikembangkan di beberapa negara maju saat ini akan diterapkan di suatu negara yang sedang berkembang seperti halnya Indonesia tanpa mengadaptasi dengan ketersediaan sarana dan prasarana serta adat-istiadat, budaya, dan tradisi yang dianut secara menyeluruh oleh bangsa Indonesia bukan tidak mungkin produk pendidikan yang diselenggarakan akan menuai kegagalan yang lebih parah dari keterpurukan mutu pendidikan sebelumnya.

Bayangkan data dari hasil survei yang dilakukan oleh the Asian-South Pacific Bureau of Adult Education and the Global Campaign for Education, menunjukkan bahwa Indonesia hanya mampu menduduki rangking 10 dari 14 negara di kawasan Asia Pasifik. Jika dikalkulasi Indonesia hanya mencapai 42 dari 100 skor maksimal, atau mendapat angka E dalam komitmen kepada pendidikan dasar. Sedangkan Thailand dan Malaysia menduduki nilai A, yang kemudian diikuti Srilanka dengan nilai B. Sedangkan Filipina, Cina, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Kampuchea, dan India mendapat nilai antara C dan F. Indonesia lebih baik hanya jika dibandingkan dengan Nepal, Papua Nugini, Kepulauan Solomon, dan Pakistan (Azra dalam Republika, 7 Juli 2005).

2. Penilaian Berbasis Kelas

Ketika kita berbicara masalah penilaian, model standarisasi yang menjadi patokan dasar penilaian terhadap pencapaian prestasi belajar peserta didik harus diestimasi berdasarkan tingkat kesulitan isi materi dan proses pembelajaran. Aspek-aspek yang menjadi bahan penilaian mencakup kumpulan kerja peserta didik (portfolio), hasil karya (product), penugasan (project), unjuk kerja (performance), dan tes tertulis (paper and pencil test). Oleh sebab itu, model penilaian bukan berdasarkan pada hasil, melainkan berorientasi pada proses.

Peranan guru menjadi semakin kompleks karena bukan hanya menjadi fasilitator di dalam ruangan kelas melainkan juga menjadi designer (perancang) dari sejumlah aspek yang menjadi bahan penilaian tersebut di atas. Guru dituntut untuk mampu mendesain learning episode (tahapan-tahapan belajar) yang disusun secara sistematis dan kontinuitas, membuat agenda belajar, menyediakan kuis-kuis, menyususun modul, dan merancang rubrik yang dapat dijadikan pedoman dalam menyelesaikan portfolio, product, project, performance, dan bahkan untuk paper and pencil test.

Tradisi behaviorisme yang mengendepankan hasil dari pada proses menjadi beban yang sangat berat bagi kebanyakan guru di Indonesia. Perubahan yang sangat drastis untuk meninggalkan praktek-praktek behaviorisme menuju konstruktivisme yang berorientasi kepada proses seperti yang diimplementasikan melalui KBK masih sangat sulit diwujudkan. Bukan hanya itu, learning style (gaya belajar) peserta didik di negara kita yang lebih suka mendengar dan melihat menjadi hambatan tersendiri jika dihadapkan pada budaya membaca dan tradisi kerja yang sistematis dan kontinuitas. Tradisi peserta didik yang cenderung membantu kerja kerabat, saudara, dan orang tua di rumah setelah pulang dari sekolah juga akan menghambat tingkat keberhasilan mereka. Walaupun demikian, rasa optimisme untuk mengubah cara berpikir, cara pandang, dan cara kerja putra-putri bangsa Indonesia harus dilakukan sekarang ini demi untuk meraih kejayaan di masa yang akan datang.

Selanjutnya, prinsip dasar penilaian berbasis kelas dapat diamati melalui keikutsertaan peserta didik dalam memberikan penilaian terhadap teman dalam satu kelompok (peer evaluation). Mereka akan dimintai penilaian terhadap kontribusi, kerja sama, serta tanggungjawab yang diberikan oleh masing-masing peserta didik dalam suatu kelompok. Hasil penilaian itu akan dibagi dengan hasil penilaian dari aspek lain oleh baik guru kelas maupun guru bantu (jika ada). Peserta didik pun berhak untuk memberikan penilaian terhadap cara kerja, pengetahuan, dan sikap guru selama berlangsungnya proses belajar mengajar. Penilaian tersebut dapat dijadikan dasar oleh kepala sekolah untuk membina kinerja guru dalam melakasanakan tugas fungsional mereka sebagai pendidik.

Objektivitas penilaian peserta didik baik terhadap teman sekelompok mereka maupun terhadap guru mata pelajaran dapat dipastikan masih sangat sulit diwujudkan mengingat tradisi kasih-mengasihani masih sangat kental dalam prilaku keseharian kita. Akibatnya, rekayasa penilaian sangat mungkin terjadi apalagi antara sesama peserta didik dan bahkan mungkin antara pendidik dan peserta didik.

3. Pengelolaan Kurikulum Berbasis Sekolah

Prinsip dasar pengelolaan kurikulum berbasis sekolah (PKBS) dapat diterjemahkan dari istilah yang lebih populer digunakan seperti “kesatuan dalam kebijaksanaan dan keberagaman dalam pelaksanaan”. Perangkat dan dokumen yang dikeluarkan oleh pemerintah dalam hal ini adalah DEPDIKNAS dapat digunakan oleh seluruh sekolah pada seluruh propinsi dan kabupaten di Indonesia menunjukkan adanya kesatuan dalam kebijaksanaan. Sedangkan keberagaman dalam pelaksanaan dapat menjangkau keberagaman silabus, modul, learning episode, rubrik, agenda pemebelajaran, dan bahkan berbagai pendekatan dalam menyampaikan materi pembelajaran.

KBK, dibandingkan dengan kurikulum sebelumnya telah mengangkat peranan sekolah lebih besar dengan memberikan kewenangan sepenuhnya untuk mengembangkan ilmu dan keterampilan yang dimiliki peserta didik sesuai dengan nilai-nilai yang dianut dalam lingkungan sekolah tersebut. Kewenangan ini boleh jadi akan memupuk dan memberi peluang kepada sekolah baik pendidik (guru), administrator, dan kepala sekolah untuk merancang dan mengembangankan model pembelajaran yang inovatif dan reformatif. Hal ini dapat terwujud jika sumber daya manusia yang mengelola sekolah itu lebih kompeten dalam bidang mereka masing-masing. Jika tidak, sekolah itu pun akan tertinggal jauh dari apa yang kita harapkan bersama.

Hasil survei dari Human Development Index (HDI) menunjukkan bahwa sebanyak 60% guru SD, 40% guru SLTP, 43% guru SMU, dan 34% guru SMK belum memenuhi standardisasi mutu pendidikan nasional. Lebih berbahaya lagi jika dilihat dari hasil temuan yang menunjukkan 17,2% guru di Indonesia mengajar bukan pada bidang keahlian mereka Toharuddin (Oktober 2005). Seandainya setiap sekolah di Indonesia memiliki angka kualitas guru rata-rata seperti disebutkan di atas, maka perubahan kurikulum hampir tidak akan menyentuh keinginan besar dari pemerintah dan para perancang kurikulum itu sebelum dilakukan pembenahan secara fundamental terhadap kualitas guru pada setiap jenjang pendidikan dasar dan menengah.

C. Solusi Alternatif

Penulis menggunakan istilah solusi alternatif karena boleh jadi pemerintah, pemikir, dan perancang KBK sudah menyiapkan sejumlah solusi terhadap kemungkinan berbagai persoalan yang timbul setelah melakukan uji coba terhadap pelaksanaan KBK di beberapa sekolah di Indonesia. Walaupun demikian, apa yang ditawarkan dalam tulisan ini mudah-mudahan dapat dijadikan bahan pertimbangan demi menata dan mengembangkan sistem pendidikan di negara kita yang lebih bermutu dan bermartabat.

1. Perlunya mengadaptasi dan bukan mengadopsi kegiatan belajar mengajar dari barat

Menurut hemat penulis, rumusan kegiatan belajar mengajar yang dirancang melalui KBK adalah penjelmaan dari model constructivist yang sekarang mendapat pengaruh yang sangat besar dari pemerintah federal America Serikat untuk menerapkan konsep No Child Left Behind. Konsep ini juga sedang diuji coba di Singapore yang diawali dengan modifikasi yang berarti sesuai dengan nilai-nilai yang dianut di negara tersebut.

2. Perlunya koordinasi dan kerjasama yang baik antara lembaga-lembaga terkait

Jika dilihat dari hasil rumusan DEPDIKNAS dalam Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum 2004, keterlibatan seluruh unsur stakeholder pendidikan seperti institusi pendidikan, institusi pembinaan guru, pusat kurikulum dan perbukuan, sekolah, orang tua, masyarakat, LSM, dewan pendidikan komite sekolah, dan perguruan tinggi kelompok asosiasi sangat diperlukan. Hanya saja, terkesan stakeholder yang disebutkan di atas hanyalah sebatas nama tanpa peran. Seharusnya gambaran wilayah kerja dan agenda kegiatan seluruh unsur yang terkait betul-betul diwujudkan agar tidak terjadi overlapping yang mengganggu pelaksanaan kurikulum itu sendiri.

Pengalaman di masa lalu menunjukkan bahwa perguruan tinggi (IKIP, dan Fakultas Pendidikan yang ada di berbagai universitas) sebagai pencetak tenaga pengajar jangankan dilibatkan dalam merumuskan berbagai langkah yang diambil sedangkan sosialisasi kurikulum pun tidak sampai ke tangan mereka. Ada pun keterlibatan pihak perguruan tinggi hanya diwakili secara personal oleh pakar-pakar tertentu dan tidak melembangga secara substantif. Akibatnya, kepincangan pun terjadi. Sekolah jalan sendiri, pemerintah melakukan tambal sulam, dan perguruan tinggi merancang pembelajaran yang tidak berorientasi kepada kebutuhan sesuai kurikulum yang berlaku. Jangan heran, jika alumni sebuah fakultas pendidikan dari perguruan tinggi mengenal kurikulum setelah berkecimpung dengan sekolah di mana mereka berada. Oleh karena itu, agen KBK diharapkan beroperasi di seluruh stakeholder dengan pembagian kerja sesuai dengan kewenangan mereka yang diikuti dengan tertemuan secara bertahap dan sistem evaluasi yang akurat.

3. Jumlah mata pelajaran di sekolah perlu ditinjau kembali

Banyaknya beban peserta didik untuk menguasai sejumlah ilmu pada sekolah dasar dan menengah serta alokasi waktu yang dipersiapkan untuk satu mata pelajaran yang sangat terbatas mengakibatkan sulitnya menerapkan model pembelajaran yang berorientasi pada kumpulan kerja peserta didik (portfolio), hasil karya (product), penugasan (project), dan unjuk kerja (performance). Akibatnya, banyak aspek-aspek fundamental dari KBK yang terpaksa tidak dapat diaplikasikan dan guru sebagai pelaksana akan menjalankan tugas yang penting memenuhi pesanan kurikulm tanpa mengindahkan esensi dari kurikulum itu sendiri.

4. Sistem perekrutan dan pemberdayaan guru hendaknya dilakukan secara merata dan berkesimbungan

Hasil survei dari Human Development Index (HDI) yang menunjukkan 17,2% guru di Indonesia mengajar bukan pada bidang keahlian mereka menjadi alasan kuat untuk melakukan sistem pemberdayaan. Sistem pemberdayaan tersebut dapat dilakukan melalui program sertifikasi atau program magister minor yang fokus pembinaannya hanya pada bidang studi keahlian baru yang yang mereka ajarkan di sekolah. Di sini lah salah satu pentinngnya peranan agen KBK yang beroperasi di perguruan tinggi.

Jika semuanya ini dapat diwujudkan, maka harapan KBK untuk mendongkrat mutu pendidikan nasional akan menjadi kenyataan dan jurang pemisah antara desired status dan actual status akan dapat diminimize setahap demi setahap. Dengan demikian, negara kita akan semakin bermartabat dan diperhitungkan dalam kompetisi global.

Instructional Technology: the Definition and Domains of the Field

2006-07-05T06:44:00.000-07:00

"Instructional Technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning" (Seels & Richey, 1994:1).

COMPONENTS OF THE DEFINITION

The Theory and Practice...

A profession must have a knowledge base that supports practice. Theory consists of the concepts, constructs, principles, and propositions that contribute to the body of knowledge. Practice is the application of that knowledge to solve problems. Practice can also contribute to the knowledge base through information gained from experience. Both theory and practice in Instructional Technology make extensive use of models. Procedural models, which describe how to perform a task, help to connect theory and practice. Theory can also generate models that visualize relationships; these models are called conceptual models.

Of the Design, Development, Utilization, Management and Evaluation...

Design, development, utilization, management and evaluation are the five basic domains of the field. These terms refer to both areas of the knowledge base and to functions performed by professionals in the field. Each domain of Instructional Technology includes a body of knowledge based on both research and experience. Each has sufficient uniqueness and scope to have evolved as a separate area of study. The domain of design represents the largest theoretical contribution of Instructional Technology to the larger field of education. The domain of development is also mature and represents the largest contribution to practice. The other domains are not as well developed or rely heavily on theory and research from other fields.

Of Processes and Resources...

Process is a series of activities directed towards a particular result. Examples of instructional technology processes include models for the development of instruction, such as instructional systems design; models for teaching, such as the discovery approach; and use of delivery systems, such as teleconferencing; Resources are sources of support for learning, including support systems and instructional materials and environments. Resources are not only the devices and materials used in the process of teaching and learning, but also people, budget and facilities.

For Learning

The purpose of Instructional Technology is to affect and effect learning. Learning is the goal and instruction is a means to learning. Learning, as evidenced by a change in knowledge, skills or attitudes, is the criterion for meaningful instruction.

THE DOMAIN OF THE FIELD

The domains of the field provide a common conceptual framework and agreement on terminology. Without this framework it is difficult to make generalizations, or even communicate easily across sub fields. Common understandings are especially critical since much of the work of instructional technologists is done in teams. While defined separately, the domains are interrelated. Each domain contributes to the other domains and to research and theory that is shared by the domains. A researcher may concentrate her work in one domain while a practitioner is likely to work in several domains, even within one project. As instructional projects become more sophisticated, the lines between domains blur and the activities of one domain are increasingly dependent on the activities of another. Each domain has subcategories which represent common areas of interest for researchers, theorists, and practitioners. These subcategories are not exhaustive, but together they represent most the work instructional technologists are doing in the recent past and present.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DOMAINSThe Domain of Design

Design is the process of specifying conditions for learning. The purpose of design is to create strategies and products at the macro level, such as programs and curricula, and at the micro level, such as lessons and modules. The domain of design encompasses at least four major subcategories of theory and practice. These subcategories are described below.

Instructional Systems Design

Instructional Systems Design (ISD) is an organized procedure that includes the steps of analyzing, designing, developing, implementing and evaluating instruction. Analyzing is the process of defining what is to be learned; developing is the process of authoring and producing the instructional materials, implementing is actually using the materials and strategies in context, and evaluating is the process of determining the adequacy of the instruction. While ISD may seem to include all the other domains, design emphasizes the parts and the whole of the planning function.

Message Design

Messages are patterns of signs or symbols that modify cognitive, affective or psychomotor behavior. Examples are symbols, type faces, visuals, textbook pages, and web pages. Message design must be specific to both the medium (e.g., photograph, computer graphic, billboard) and the learning task (attitude formation, motor skill development, memorization). This subcategory emphasizes the planning of a message to fit the medium and the learning task.

Instructional Strategies

Instructional strategies are specifications for selecting and sequencing events and activities within a lesson. A designer uses instructional strategy theories as principles for instruction, and chooses them based on the learning situation, learning environment, learning task and learner. Again, the focus is on the choice and planning of a strategy to fit the situation.

Learner Characteristics

Each learner has past experiences or even innate qualities that impact the effectiveness of a learning process. A designer uses theory and research about learner characteristics to plan for modifications in instruction to support increased effectiveness for that learner or one like him/her.

THE DOMAIN OF DEVELOPMENT

Development is the process of translating the design specifications into physical form. It includes hardware, software, visual and auditory materials, as well as the programs or packages which integrate the various parts. The sub-categories of the development domain reflect chronological changes in technology, with new overlapping but not replacing old.

Print Technologies

Print and visual materials, including books, photographs and graphics involve the most basic ways of producing and delivering instructional materials. They also provide the foundation for both the development and utilization of other instructional technologies. Text displayed by a computer is an example of the use of computer-based technology for production. When that text is printed in hard copy to be used for instruction, it is an example of delivery in a print technology. Development of text materials and visual materials relies upon theories related to visual perception, reading and human information processing as well as theories of learning.

Audiovisual Technologies

Audiovisual instruction is most obviously characterized by the use of hardware in the teaching process, that is, using mechanical or electronic machines to present auditory and visual messages. There is an increasing overlap of AV Technologies with Computer-based Technologies. For example, a video is an audiovisual technology. However, when video information is available on a videodisc, it becomes randomly accessible and may demonstrate most of the characteristics of computer-based or integrated technologies.

Computer-based Technologies

Computer-based technologies use screen displays to present information to students. Information is stored electronically in the form of digital data rather than as print or visuals. The various types of computer applications are generally computer-based (CBI), computer-assisted (CAI), or computer-managed (CMI).

Integrated Technologies

Integrated technologies are ways to produce and deliver materials which encompass several forms of media under the control of a computer. An example of an integrated system would be a computer which has a hypermedia lesson running under an authoring system such as HyperCard or Toolbook. This lesson would include information on a videodisc, audio system or the WWW. As controlled by the learner’s interaction with the computer keyboard and monitor, the computer would access these various resources and deliver the output to the computer screen. The learner doesn’t have to be concerned about the delivery of the resources, but can concentrate on the content of the lesson.

DOMAIN OF UTILIZATION

This is the oldest of the domains because regular use of AV materials predates even concern for production of instructional media. Utilization is the act of using processes and resources for learning. Bringing about change, through instructional innovation is incorporated within this domain. Those engaged in utilization are responsible for matching learners with specific materials and activities, preparing learners for interacting with the selected materials and activities, providing guidance during interaction, providing for assessment of the results, and incorporating this usage into the continuing procedures of the organization. The subcategories of this domain explain these activities further.

Media Utilization

The media utilization process is a decision-making process based on instructional design specifications. Those engaged in media utilization are taking what was planned by the instructional design process and carrying it out with learners in the classroom. For example, how a film is introduced to learners or "followed-up" with activities would be tailored to the type of learning desired. Learner characteristics and learning styles may also influence how media is utilized.

Diffusion of Innovation

The goal in this area of utilization is to bring about change . The first stage of the change process is to create awareness through dissemination of information. From this awareness comes interest, trial and adoption.

Implementation and Institutionalization

The goal in this area of utilization is to continue the change process. Instructional technologists implement the use of instructional materials or strategies in real (not simulated) settings. They also institutionalize, that is establish continuing, routine use of the instructional innovation in the structure and culture of the organization. Both processes depend on changes in individuals and changes in the organization. Implementation does, however, concentrate on the proper use of the innovation by individuals. Institutionalization serves to integrate the innovation in the structure and life of the organization.

Policies and Regulations

Generating, refining, interpreting and disseminating rules which affect the use and diffusion of instructional technology is also a part of the utilization domain. Some rules, like laws, come from outside the field and must be applied within the field. Some rules, like ethical standards, are formulated within the field and communicated to those within the field. Instructional technology has been involved in policy generation related to instructional television, copyright law, and standards for equipment and programs.

THE DOMAIN OF MANAGEMENT

Instructional technologists are often called upon to manage. Programs, projects and settings may differ greatly, but the basic skills necessary to manage remain constant. These skills include planning and organizing programs, supervising personnel, planning and administering budget and facilities, coordinating policies and procedures, and providing leadership. Four subcategories of management are especially important in instructional technology.

Project Management

Project managers plan, monitor and control instructional design and development projects. Their jobs are limited to ensuring the success of a particular project, but they are generally responsible for managing all aspects of the project.

Resource Management

Resources can include personnel, budget, supplies, time, facilities, and instructional resources. An example of a manager in this area would be the Director of Media Resources at a university. He would, through management, make instructional resources accessible to those who need them.

Delivery System Management

Distance learning projects, such as GSAMS, provide requirements for this type of management. Delivery system management focuses on product issues, such as hardware/software requirements and technical support to users and operators, and process issues, such as guidelines for designers and instructors.

Information Management

Information must be accessible to users when, where and in whatever format best serves their needs. Information managers plan, monitor and control the storage, transfer or processing of information in order to provide resources for learning.

THE DOMAIN OF EVALUATION

Within this domain, evaluation is the process of determining the merit, worth or value of an instructional program, project or product for the purpose of making a judgment. The focus is on the instructional program, project or product (material) not on the learners. Personnel evaluation may play into the evaluation of an instructional program or project, but is also not the focus within this domain. Three subcategories of evaluation are of particular interest for study and practice within instructional technology.

Problem Analysis

Evaluation starts as the program, project or product is being planned. The first step in evaluation is problem analysis. This process includes identifying needs, determining to what extent the problem can be classified as instructional in nature, identifying constraints, resources and learner characteristics, and determining goals and priorities (Seels and Glasgow, 1990). A need has been defined as "a gap between ‘what is’ and ‘what should be’ in terms of results" (Kaufman, 1972).

Criterion-Referenced Measurement

Because of the emphasis on achievement of specific competencies within the field of instructional technology, criterion-referenced measurement is of interest. The criterion for determining adequacy is the extent to which a learner (or a program, project or product) has met the objective.

Formative and Summative Evaluation

An emphasis on both formative evaluation (in the early stages of product development) and summative evaluation (after completion of instructional program) is a prime concern of instructional technologists. Formative evaluation involves gathering information on adequacy and using this information as a basis for further development. Summative evaluation involves gathering information on adequacy and using this information to make decisions about implementation or institutionalization.

Considering Models of Distance Education to Deliver English Instruction in Indonesia

2006-07-04T06:43:00.000-07:00

By Muhammad Yaumi

In the early 1990s, distance education was considered as a generic name for a distant educational system, which focused on using on air media like radio and teleconferencing (Anggoro, 1993). Perry and Rumble (1987) defined technical term “distance education” as an instructional activity, which does not need students’ physical presence in the classroom. Dan Coldeway in Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek (2003) provided four useful approaches to understanding the framework of distance education. The four involve differing combination of time and place. They include same-time, same-place (ST-SP), different-time, same place (DT-SP), same-time, different place (ST-DP), and different-time, different-place (DT-DP). Actually, implementing distance education to support English instruction is not only the combination of place and time but also the combination of time, place, and technology support. It involves understanding how technological tools such as hardware (computer, video, radio, television, telephone) and software (word processing, spreadsheet, database, material generator, data collection and data analysis, graphics, atlases, dictionaries, and so forth) can be integrated into teaching to support students learning.

In 1998, United States Distance Learning Association (USDLA) created a definition of distance education as quoted by Roblyer (2004;190):
… the acquisition of knowledge and skills through mediated information and instruction. Distance learning encompasses all technologies and supports the pursuit of lifelong learning for all.
Roblyer states that this definition is not the final concept to be used let alone to be considered as the only one. He noted that most past definitions of distance learning included two things as the key components; the first, instructor and learner separated by time and/or geographic distance and the second, the media (including electronic, print resources, voice communications, and combinations of them), which were used to bridge the gap (p.190).

Based on the various definitions as have been given above, distance education can be understood from the following characteristics; (1) teacher-student separation, (2) students’ accountability and independence, (3) teachers’ creativity in managing instructional resources, and (4) using technological innovation as instructional media. These characteristics may be different in the way of implementation model.

Models of distance education can be described through communication delivery system of instructional materials in relation to the use of technology for the purpose of learning. Simonson Smaldino, Albright, and Zvacek (2003) stated model of communication in distance education that is called a taxonomy of distance education technologies can be divided into correspondence study, prerecorded media, two-way audio, two-way audio with graphics, one-way live video, two-way audio/video, and desktop two-way audio/video (p.90).

Similar to distance communication model described above, Roblyer (2004) historically divided distance education models into three rationales and methods that he calls; past, present, and future. Using correspondence study, print materials, videotapes and instructional television indicates past rationales and methods. Current rationales and methods are indicated by mostly growth in the use of instructional technologies such as electronic means or the Internet network. Last but not least about the future rationales and methods is life-like instructional environment that is intentionally designed to interact between teachers and students. It mostly likes face-to-face relationship because of using interactive video-and-audio system.

In 1997, Institute of Distance Education at the University of Maryland divided distance education into three models; model A: distributed classroom, model B: independent learning, and model C: open learning. Distributed classroom includes involving synchronous communication, providing number of sites, students may enroll at any sites convenient to them, and institutions are able to serve a small numbers of students in each location. The characteristics of independence learning are there is no class session, students study independently based on guidelines in the syllabus, interaction may exist in other circumstances, class presentation would be printed materials, audio, and videotapes, instructional materials are designed for several years and often revised by comprehending students’ need. The last model is open learning classroom, which involves presentation of course content is through print, computer disk, or videotape that can be accessed at any time in any places, course materials are used for more than one semester, students come together periodically in groups in specified locations for instructor-led class session through interactive technologies, and class sessions are for students to discuss and clarify concepts and engage in problem solving activities, group, simulations, and other applied learning exercises (adapted from http://www.umuc.edu/ide/modlmenu.html).

Apparently, models of distance education that have been implemented in Indonesia since 1955 is adopted from the distance education model practiced in western countries. Ramanujam (2001) stated that the planners of UT indeed, heavily depended on the western models and the western consultants from United Kingdom (England), Canada, and the United States of America. As far as the writer is concerned, almost all of the models of distance education as have been mentioned above have been practiced in Indonesia although technology support has not been completely fulfilled and reached generally in all subject matters and all areas of Indonesian territory.

Different from other Asian countries or maybe in western countries, distance education in Indonesia is not only designed for adult learners but also for high school levels because of geographical and economical constraints. There have been 34 open high schools throughout Indonesia and based on the characteristics of distance education the schools rely on self-study. As the consequence of limitation in technology support, the use of technology varies from one school to another and in particular subject matters as wells. Sadiman (1994) stated that print modules are used to present nine subject matters such as mathematics, biology, English language, Indonesian language, physics, Pancasila moral education, geography, economics, and national history, while the four non-academic subjects such as arts, physical education and health, religion, and vocational skills are in the form of brochures. Now, print modules have replaced the brochures (p.3).

The print materials are supplemented with audiovisual materials, such as slide-tape programs, audiotapes, and radio programs and then print materials are developed into videotape program as has been performed today. A teacher’s guide and students’ guide to facilitate utilization accompany each audiovisual supplement. That is the role of Communications Technology Center for Education and Culture that has been established in several cities in Indonesia. According to Sadiman (1994), although the distance high school students learn from print materials, they are hoped to learn from radio program based on the given schedule because instructional radio program can be listened from each technology center.

The use of contemporary instructional means such as multimedia computer, the Internet network system, has been implemented since the establishment of national electronic communication infrastructure in 1997 that is called “Nusantara-21”. To respond the availability of accessing the Internet for the purpose of instructional communication, Belawati, Anggoro, Hardhono, and Darmayanti (2002) designed tutorials using Internet and fax-Internet. The tutorials were directed to UT students throughout Indonesia. Unlike face-to-face conventional classroom, the implementation of tutorials, students’ participant rate and tutor responsiveness rate evaluation were conducted through the Internet and fax-Internet.

Based on various distant instructional experiences that have been implemented both in high school and university levels, three models of distance education have given significant contribution in the history of distance education development in Indonesia although the quality of the outcomes become controversial debates in the country. The significant contribution can be viewed from the side of how many students who live in rural areas and those who have financial problems can experience adequate education because distance education existence. In addition, the acceleration of using contemporary technology is one of the instructional purposes and the implication of distance education to deliver English instruction can be fulfilled in order to accelerate the productivity improvement of human resources in Indonesia.

The selection of distance education model to deliver English instruction can be adapted through comprehensive observation of the instructional media availability considering the learning styles and cultural characteristics of Indonesian learners. Ely (2003) suggested some points to be considered in selecting appropriate media. They are; easy access for students, matching with objectives, easy to use, passing certain tests before incorporating (p.4). In terms of selecting appropriate media to deliver English instruction, Roblyer (2004) recommended to use the following assumptions to select technology in to teaching in order to reach the ability of multiple language skills. The assumptions are: (1) student center and developmental appropriate instruction, (2) integrated English skills instruction, (3) interactive and meaningful activities, (4) content integrated instruction, (4) real life application, (5) assisted proficiency standards (p.238).

Considering the availability of accessing technology media, students’ learning styles, cultural diversity, instructional objectives, and acceptability of institutes, the suitable model of distance education to deliver English instruction in Indonesia is integrated model of distance education. Integrated model is defined as cohesion of various models of distance education that is used to support a particular purpose. Here, the particular purpose is to sustain the mastery of English instruction in Indonesia. The term cohesion is used does not mean to pick up all of the components of each model, but the suitable part that can be put together with the other parts of other models. Therefore, there are four suitable components of distance education technology that have been considered as appropriate parts to deliver English instruction. They are; printed materials, radio and telephone, audiotapes and television, and computer based technology.

Printed Materials
The earliest model of distance education in Indonesia is correspondence study that primarily used the printed materials for supporting teaching and learning process. Syllabus, study guide, lessons, readings, and assignments are sent to the students through regular post office and electronic mails. For students who cannot access the Internet connection system, the printed materials are mailed through the post office. On the other hands, the printed materials are sent through electronic mail for those who can easily access the Internet system.

Radio and Telephone
Besides printed materials, integrated models of distance education to deliver English instruction uses radio and telephone media. Instructional media is used to improve students’ audio communication competence of English language, present subject content in more interesting ways, develop students’ imagination, assist students to consolidate the subject content studied through printed modules, and give essential points greater emphasis (Sadiman, 1999). In addition, radio as a synchronous medium can be listened at the same time and in different locations by the students. The instructors can give students some additional tasks dealing with English program broadcasted through Australian radio, Singapore, England, and even American radio. The weakness of radio because of limited use, just for one-way communication, will be supported by audio two-way communication through telephone. The limitation of opportunity to motivate students through printed materials can be enhanced by the use of both radio and telephone.

Audiotapes and Television
Recorded tapes or cassettes offered a lot of times for the students to use rather than radio and telephone that give a few opportunities for the students to interact. Students can listen to the recorded materials at any time and in any places they want. The students can also read through printed and recorded materials as wells. The confusing points can be asked through telephone when the instructional materials are presented. Students can watch instructional programs through Indonesian instructional Television (TPI) at the same time in different places. The instructors can design some parts instructional materials that directly link to TPI program. Broadcast television utilizes a wide bandwidth to ensure quality reception (Kuntz, 1998, p.13).

Computer Based
English language teaching (ELT) has been with us for many years and its significance continues to grow, fuelled, partially at least, by the Internet (Jarvis, 2005). Computer mediated communication (CMC) can allow for either synchronous or asynchronous communication (Chapelle2003). CMC activities can involve a variety of participant configurations including one individual sending messages to another, one individual sending to many others, groups sending to other groups, etc. It seems that technology innovations have gone hand in hand with the growth of English as the means of communication. Therefore, the computer has a great impact in English language teaching.

According to Jarvis (2005), Computer in ELT can be viewed from two perspectives. Firstly, computer assisted language learning (CALL) developed and concerned itself with the pedagogical applications of the technology. Secondly, the use of computers for assisting and understanding of what constitutes the English language and how it works. Therefore, printed materials, radio and telephone, audiotapes and television, and computer based are the alternative solutions for instructional delivery system to accelerate the mastery of English language for the Indonesian students. However, the students successfulness in learning does not only depend on the sophisticated means or the accessibility of technology support, but the capability of human resources, the political will of government, and the involvement of all educational stakeholders as well.

Learning Styles and Cultural Unique of Indonesian Students

2006-07-03T04:39:00.000-07:00

By Muhammad Yaumi

Learning style is often dealt with psychological process within individual’s growth. Swanson (1995) claims that the term cognitive style was used rather than learning styles. Cognitive styles are perceived as cognitive characteristic modes, super-ordinate construct cognitive operation, and intrinsic information processing pattern of one’s intellectual and perceptual activities (p.1). According to Reid (1995), the term learning style refers to an individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred ways of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills (p.viii). Scarpaci and Fradd (1985) defined learning styles as ways in which individuals perceive, organize, and recall information in their environment (p.184). Based on the definitions, learning style is considered as a manner of individual’s mental process in relation to surrounding event.

Seemingly, the definition of the terms “learning and cognitive styles” are used interchangeably. However, Liu (1999) formulated technical differences although maintained the agreement of the similarity. The first is cognitive styles are more related to theoretical or academic research, while learning styles are more related to practical application. The second, cognitive styles are more related to a bipolar dimension, while learning styles are not necessarily extreme.
Learning styles correlate significantly to language learning strategies. Abraham, (1983) stated that there is a relationship between field dependence-independence and language learning. Wyss (2002) explicitly explained the advantages and disadvantages of field independence and dependence learning styles that implies to second language acquisition. The field independence learners tend to involve profound thought such as analytical, comprehensive, and focused activities. The field dependence, on the other hand, tends to involve higher order thinking to achieve everyday language communication. In addition, Kang (1999) found that ESL learners vary not only in terms of their purposes for learning English, but also in terms of individual differences in learning due to educational, ethnic, and cultural diversities. Educators, therefore, should consider the appropriate instruments in order to identify the students’ learning styles in the same time provide instructional solution to address the students diversities.

In distance education, learning styles are seen as essential parts of instructional components. Liu (1999) recommended modifying four aspects of distance education design associated with learning styles. They are; (1) instructional planning, (2) learning environment construction, (3) teaching method selection, and (4) evaluation administration (p.10). Instructional planning involves various appropriate instruments that can be used to meet students learning styles, terminal objectives, which emphasize on students’ learning preferences and non-preferences, and instructional preparation, which covers instructional sources, approaches, media, and evaluation model.

Learning environmental construction includes online contact and diversified learning styles as supportive learning environments. On line contact is designed to bridge the relationship among the students and between the students and teachers, while diversified learning styles become a center of consideration to identify students’ learning characteristics. In selecting the teaching method, instructional materials and teaching styles should match students’ learning styles. Assessment and feedback are used to implement the evaluation administration.
There are many approaches used to identify students learning styles. Papp (2001) described five approach models comprising (1) Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (LSI), (2) Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST), (3) Index of Learning Styles (ILS), (4) Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ), and (5) Academic Self-Efficacy Scale. Similar to this division, Liu (1999) stated there are five major dimensions of learning styles. They are; field independence and dependence, holist and analytic, sensory preference, hemispheric preference, and Colb’s LSI. However, not all those kinds have been implemented to identify Indonesian students’ learning styles associated with ESL and distance education.

One of the interesting studies is conducted by two senior lecturers, Hafsah Nur & Sophia A.A. Ruru, (1990) at the Institute of Teacher Training and Education (now, called Makassar State University or UNM) and Hasanuddin University (UNHAS). They implemented learning styles inventory (LSI) using Barsch’s model and the Brain-Dominance Inventory in EFL classes. The Barsch’s LSI was used to evaluate in what degree an individual is a visual, auditory, or tactile learner, while Brain- Dominance was use to have a score of individual’s performance by percentages of left or right brain dominance and relates the scores to a logical learning styles. The study took a sample of 53 students from UNM and 50 students from UNHAS. The results of study indicated that 68 (66%) of the students were predominantly visual. The Brain Dominance Inventory showed that 49 (47.2%) students had a bilateral score, 29 (28.15%) had scores in the category of slight preference left, and 9 (8,70%) had a score in the slight preference right category. So, the total of students who are either bilateral or in a slight preference category were 87 (84.5%).

Harvey and Harvey (1995) conducted a research on learning styles and readiness for self-directed learning of Indonesian education students. The study used two approach models; Kolb’s LSI and Gugliemino’s Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS). LSI model was used to measure learning styles of 395 fulltime students of Universitas Terbuka (Open University) and SDLRS was used to measure self directed learning of 600 fulltime students of Universitas Terbuka. All faculties were represented in the sample. The result of the study indicated that 218 (55%) of 395 questionnaires were completed and returned for LSI and 417 (69%) of 600 questionnaires were completed and returned for the SDLRS. The conclusion of the study was Indonesian distance education students are similar to those reported in western studies and the readiness for self-directed learning is average. Then, the relationships among learning styles, self-directed learning, and achievement are mixed.

Another research concerning Indonesian students learning styles was studied by Reid (19876) who found that Indonesian students studying in the United States nominated auditory and kinesthetic learner characteristics as major learning style preferences; visual, tactile, and individual learner characteristics as minor learning styles preferences; and group learner characteristics as undesirable styles of learning. The conclusion of the study was Indonesian students appeared to be the most closely related to native English speakers in terms of major, minor, and negative learning style preferences (p.98-99).

Despite Indonesian students have similar learning styles to those in western countries; cultural differences in learning must be different. It has been a generic consensus that Indonesian students have a hearing-talking typical culture of learning rather than reading- writing tradition. Novera (2004) studied about Indonesian postgraduate students studying in Australia. One of the important issues focused on the study is cultural difference in learning that can be a barrier for Indonesian students. The result of the study said that Indonesia is one Asian country that highly values in ‘power distance’. Power distance is about how a cultural deals with status inequality and authority; the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequality (Hofstede, 1997, p.28).

The study found various explicit differences between Indonesian culture and Australia. According to Novera (2004), Indonesians are expected to obey and to respect older people by using a particular language code such as Pak or Bapak (sir) and Bu or Ibu (madam) to refer to a person who is senior than them. This is not the way to call the people in Australia as well as in western cultures who directly refer to the professors’ name. In addition, interrupting lectures in the middle of presentation is considered rude, and criticizing the lecturers is even worse. The students have rights to speak as soon as the professors open a discussion session after presentation. This is why students’ behavior tends to be passive and quiet in the classroom setting.

ENGLISH INSTRUCTION IN INDONESIA

2006-07-02T05:46:00.000-07:00

By Muhammad Yaumi

In ELT, the use of telephone, interactive communication or teleconference via Internet, video and audiocassettes is now commonplace. Bruce & Hogan (1998) illustrated the relationship between technology and daily evidence. They said that as technologies embed themselves in everyday discourse and activity, a curious thing happens. The more we look, the more they slip into the background. Despite our attention, we lose sight of the way they shape our daily lives (p.270).

The Internet (of which computer mediated communication forms a major aspect) is changing the language party because it gives rise to new vocabulary, but more importantly because the medium and its users drive the language in certain direction (Crystal, 2001). In Indonesia, using technological innovations have gone hand-in-hand with the growth of English language teaching practiced in both formal and informal education in spite of its usage has not been as popular as in advanced countries. This limitation, however, gives a discrete characteristic for the implementation of instructional practice.

As a matter of fact, under the control of colonial system (before 1945), Dutch and Japanese languages used to be limitedly taught and used in Indonesia, but the foreign language that has been chosen to be taught from primary school through university after the independence is English. The global reality of international communication that places English as a dominant language used in the world has made Indonesian nation choose the consideration. Through the decree of the Minister of Education and Culture (now called the Minister of National Education) number 096 of 1967, English was stipulated as the first foreign language for all Indonesian students from lower secondary education to university levels (Septi, 2000). There are two basic aims of the English instruction implemented in primary up to higher education levels; first, providing students to be able to read textbooks written in English at the higher education. Second, English ability is important for those who want to get good jobs and career position (Lie, 2004).

Different from the native English language countries, English language instruction in Indonesia has been implemented through both formal and informal education. As a subject matter at formal schools, the government has prerogative policy to reform, innovate, and even change the curriculum, strategy of teaching, and textbooks as well. Since the English language began to formally implement, Indonesia has been a number of curricula changes. (Septi, 2000) stated four kinds of curricula that have been practiced. They are the 1968 curriculum, followed by the 1975, 1984, 1987, and 1994 curricula. Alwasilah (2005) added Kurikulum Berbasis Literasi (Literacy curriculum based) for the 2004 curriculum. Accordingly, there have been five fundamental curricula changes since the English language teaching was formally introduced in formal education in Indonesia.

Following the curricula changes as have been mentioned above, various approaches of language instruction have been modified by comprehending the needs contained in each curriculum. Huda (1999) stated that the 1968 curriculum took audio-lingual approach that based on the principles of behavior psychology. Sentence structure, oral drilling, reading aloud, and listening became main focus of teaching rather than meaning and comprehension. The development of methodological study in the English speaking countries such as the United States of America, England, and Australia had brought profound impacts in the study of foreign language in Indonesia. Therefore, the strategy used in 1975 curriculum was changed to mastery learning approach that still kept structural concept, but more emphasized in pre-test and post-tests.

In addition, Nio (1993) stated the 1984 curriculum took a communicative approach that focused on achieving the speaking and writing skills. Although this approach stressed on the mastery of oral and written communication, reading became a central part to build speaking and writing skill. This is what Jazadi (1999) said as reading-focused communicative approach and Huda (1997) considered as Indonesian context communicative approach. This term is referred to implementation of communicative approach based on Indonesian context, which is very different from that implemented in other countries.

The 1994 curriculum kept continuing the communicative approach and more emphasized on the meaningful approach. Both Jazadi (1999) and Huda (1999) admitted that although the modification of communicative approach has been done, but the dependence on the reading was unavoidable. However, Jazadi expressed his disagreement if the dependence was considered because English is viewed more as a foreign than a second language in the context of English as a foreign language. Unfortunately, he did not explicitly explain why the communicative approach was centralized in reading skill. Without simplifying the concept of communicative approach, the answer is not as complicated as some opinions if the reading skill is viewed as an integrated part with the other skills such as speaking, listening, and writing. The mastery of English depends on the ability in those skills. However, English is still as the foreign language in Indonesia so that the mastery of four skills is different from one another. That’s why, reading skill is considered as the main skill as the source of inspiration to built the other skills.

Currently, the 2004 curriculum, which is known as Kurikulum Berbasis Literasi (Literacy Based Curriculum) is emphasized on discourse competence. Alwasilah (2005) explained the principles of literacy education as the basic concept of Kurikulum Berbasis Literasi (KBL). The first is oral-written principle that emphasize oral as well as written communication skills. The second is semantic and interpretation principles, which focus on personal, interpersonal, ideational, textual, and transactional meaning. Students are brought to wide freedom of interpretation and making meanings toward evidences around them. The third is language utilization principle, which guides the students to use the language in real world situation. The language that has been learned from the instructional sources should be used in order that the other people can make meanings, interpretation, and even take a lesson from the communication. The fourth principle is collaboration that includes other students to get involved in the process of transferring knowledge. The knowledge can be built through working collaboratively among the teachers, students, or other hands.

The fifth principle is convention, which emphasizes to communicate the language based on the general rules and values or norms that are acceptable for the society. Punctuation mark such as syllable, coma, full stop, morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and discourse should be the focus of attention. The sixth principle is cultural knowledge. Teachers are supposed to introduce the cultural comprehension to the students because learning the English language is learning the culture that integrates into the language. The seventh principle is problem solving that focuses on overcoming the problem encountered inside and outside the classroom. The more the students are able to bring the solution of the problem the more successful they are in acquiring the English language. The last but not least is reflection principle. Through this principle, students are trained to understand themselves and other students. In another word, reflection can bring the students to realize which one has been known and unknown (p. 2-3).
Based on the brief history of English language instruction implemented in formal education above, students’ English mastery after graduating from senior high schools is hopefully reliable. However, satisfactory results in students’ capability have not been achieved. Widiastono (2004) stated that the majority of general high school alumni couldn’t be able to speak English although English language teaching has been implemented from primary schools to university levels.

Different from formal schools, informal education such as Intensive English Course, Short-term course, and the likes have given good contribution to bring the students able to master four skills comprising reading, speaking, listening, and writing skills. Informal education did not experience to change neither specific curriculum nor methodology of teaching. The institutes of informal education, however, are very concerned about human resources like instructors. More than that, being English language instructors in outstanding institutes of informal education is more selective rather than being English teachers in government (formal) schools.

Therefore, the perception of many people toward the failure in terms of English language teaching in Indonesia is difficult to be countered. Jazadi (1999) in his preliminary investigation of some high school English course books found three fundamental problems. The first problem is mismatching between learners’ need and the teaching materials. The themes and topic about agriculture, geography, culture, etc. are listed rather than popular science interest for stimulating classroom discussion. The second problem is found in the final exams (known as Evaluasi Belajar Tahap Akhir or EBTANAS). The test based on multiple-choice type question using reading text and the teaching orientation is directed to the test preparation in order to achieve the successfulness. The third problem is associated with the size of classroom. One classroom usually consists of 30 to 40 students who are taught by only one teacher in a very limited time allotment. Consequently, students seem to lack of opportunities to practice the target language. Lie (2004) and Widiaston (2004) tend to see the failure of English language teaching in Indonesia in the part of the professionalism of teachers who are still far from desire and the governmental policy which always changes the curriculum and methods of teaching from time to time without paying fully attention to the result of research and adequate socialization of curriculum changes.

Accordingly, the attention in developing curriculum, making innovation of teaching strategies, and providing technology to support instructional practice should be followed by the effort to implement teachers’ productivity improvement. Intensive course, workshop, seminar, and opportunity providing to experience overseas education, and even using distance education should be parts of governmental policy to accelerate the process of teachers’ recruitment. The research about learning styles, cultural context, and social values and ideology should become the basis of adaptation the western concept of learning to be conducted in Indonesia.

Technology Integration Plan

2006-07-01T20:02:00.000-07:00

The Technology Integration Plan (TIP) is the connection between the curriculum goals, methods, and tools needed to meet those goals, and the identification of how those goals have been met both at the macro (Unit Overview) and micro (Lesson Plans) levels. The TIP demonstrates your application of knowledge gained during this course in a real-world application.

Phase 1 Determine Relative Advantage

Each teacher has topics that are found to be especially challenging to teach. Good teachers spend much time trying to meet these challenges and make concepts more engaging or easier to grasp, or make task more efficient to accomplish. Teachers have to consider the benefits of using technology-based methods compared to their current ones and decide if the benefits are worth the additional effort and cost.

Phase 2 Deciding on Objectives and Assessments

Writing objectives helps to set clear expectations for what technology-based methods will accomplish. Objectives should focus on outcomes that are observable rather than internal ones that cannot be seen or measured. Objectives will also be influenced by the standards to which they should align. These standards can be national or district focused.

Phase 3 Designing Integration Strategies

This is where there teacher must decide whether the method to be used will be primarily directed or inquiry-based or constructivist. Characteristics of the topic and the needs of the students will impact the decision of what instructional course of action will work best in the chosen learning environment. This decision usually drives all other lesson planning decisions.

Phase 4 Preparing the Instructional Environment

Phase 4 and Phase 3 decisions are usually made at the same time. Most teachers decide how they will teach something in light of what they have available to teach it. Teachers need to make sure their instructional environment meets all of the following essential conditions required for successful technology integration.

Phase 5 Evaluating and Revising Integration Strategies

As a unit or lesson is completed, teachers should begin reviewing outcome data and information on how successful the the strategies and plans were in solving the identified problem. Data collection comes from many different places. Multiple data points of data provide a clearer picture of the plans effectiveness. This information is used to change future objectives, strategies, and implementation tasks to assure even more success the next time.